Biomedical Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
Prevention
Rickettsiae are present not only in their
arthropod vectors, but also in the blood, urine, feces, milk,
reproductive secretions, and tissues of infected animal or
human hosts. Parenteral inoculation and exposure to
infectious aerosols and droplets are the most likely sources
of infection to laboratory and animal care personnel.
Tissues infected with C. burnetii may contain up to 10
9
organisms per gram, and the human inhalation ID
25
e
ID
50
is 10 organisms. Biosafety Level 3 is recommended for
laboratory procedures and animal infection studies.
(
Bauman and Chick, 1973; Butler et al., 1988
), and Coc-
cidiodes immitis (
McKenny et al., 1948; Kruse et al., 1967;
Rapley and Long, 1974; Centers for Disease Control/
National Institutes of Health, 2009
). These organisms are
important because they may cause chronic or acute gran-
ulomatous or suppurative respiratory tract and bone lesions
that resemble tuberculosis. Nocardia is partially acid-fast,
so lesions can be confused with tuberculosis by both gross
and microscopic examination (
Jonas and Wyand, 1966; Al-
Doory et al., 1969; Boncyk et al., 1975; McClure et al.,
1976
). Cryptococcus neoformans usually causes meningitis
in humans but may cause granulomatous pulmonary and
cerebral lesions in primate animals (
Takos and Elton, 1953;
Garner et al., 1969; Linares and Daker, 1972
). Mucormy-
cosis, caused by Mucor spp., tends to be an opportunistic
infection with invasion of the nervous system and other
viscera, but may also cause localized infection (
Gisler and
Pitcock, 1962; Hessler et al., 1967
).
Superficial mycotic infections of all kinds have also
been found in nonhuman primates. Candida albicans may
cause localized thrush on oral or genital mucosa of infants
or a disseminated disease in immunocompromised animals
(
Kerber et al., 1968; Wikse et al., 1970; Henrickson, 1984
).
Dermatophilus spp. cause dermatitis with alopecia, which
may progress to papillomatous encrustations, with a high
relapse rate suggesting that organisms may persist on
pelage and continue to be a hazard to handlers after
apparently successful treatment (
Kaplan, 1976; Fox et al.,
1984
). The true dermatomycoses, commonly referred to as
ringworm and athlete's foot, are caused by Microsporum
and Tricophyton spp. in both human and nonhuman
primates (
MacKenzie, 1961; T-W-Fiennes, 1967; Gugnani,
1971; Taylor et al., 1973; Fox et al., 1984
). Dermatophilosis
(cutaneous streptothricosis) has been reported in owl
monkeys (A. trivirgatus)(
Fox et al., 1973
), a titi monkey
(Callicebus moloch)(
Migaki and Seibold, 1976
), and an
orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus)(
Brack et al., 1997
).
CHLAMYDIAL DISEASES
Chlamydiae are small, gram-positive, coccoid bacteria that
resemble rickettsiae and were formerly classified as the
psittacosis
e
lymphogranuloma
e
trachoma group of that
order. A naturally occurring Chlamydia/Chlamydiophila
infection has been reported in M. fascicularis from the
Philippines. Gross necropsy findings included pleuropneu-
monia and ulceration of the tongue and lips, and the diagnosis
was based on histological and serological examinations.
Epithelial cells from a tongue ulcer contained numerous
reticulate bodies, elementary bodies, and cytoplasmic
includion bodies, observed by light microscopy. Chlamydia-
like particles were seen in the lung (
Morita et al., 1971
). A
number of experimental infection studies have been per-
formed in macaques and baboons (
DiGiacomo et al., 1975
).
Prevention
Chlamydiophila psittaci is found in tissues,
feces, nasal secretions, blood, sputum, and tissues of
infected individuals; Chlamydia trachomatis is found in
genital, bubo, and conjunctival fluids of infected animals.
Infections with psittacosis lymphogranuloma venereum
and trachoma were, historically, the fifth most commonly
reported laboratory-associated bacterial infection. This was
primarily due to the high incidence of psittacosis from
handling infected birds before 1955, which emphasizes the
contagiousness of these organisms.
Universal precautions withBiosafety Level 2 practices are
recommended for all activities except those with high
potential for droplet or aerosol production involving produc-
tion quantities or concentration of infectious materials, for
which Biosafety Level 3 precautions are advised (
Centers for
Disease Control/National Institutes of Health, 2009
).
Prevention
Biosafety Level 2 precautions are recom-
mended for preventing the spread of mycotic diseases from
animals to contact workers (
Centers for Disease Control/
National Institutes of Health, 2009
).
PARASITIC DISEASES
Helminths
The helminths include Acanthocephala, the thorny or
spiny-headed worms; Nemathelminthes or nematodes, the
round-worms; and Platyhelminthes, the flatworms.
MYCOTIC DISEASES
Fungal diseases are not common in nonhuman primates,
but representatives of all of the major human mycotic
pathogens have been found in one or more species and are
transmissible to humans.
Among the fungi that cause systemic infections are
Aspergillus spp., Nocardia caviae, Nocardia asteroides
(
Sakakibara
Acanthocephalans
Human infection with acanthocephalans has rarely been
reported, and the potential
et
al., 1984
), Histoplasma capsulatum
for
infection is minimal.
