Biomedical Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
Prevention
There are no reported cases of transmission of
measles or influenza viruses to people from nonhuman
primates, but there is evidence that the virus passes from
humans to animals. Effective vaccines are available for
measles, mumps, and influenza, all of which can be trans-
mitted from human to nonhuman primates, and vice versa;
therefore, all persons who have contact with primates
should be immunized against these agents so that they do
not infect susceptible research animals.
class could be brought in with any shipment of animals
from the wild. Therefore, quarantine procedures should
provide for thorough evaluation of the cause of death or
illness of all newly imported animals. Even though these
viruses are spread by arthropods in the wild, it is essential to
keep in mind that even arboviruses can be transmitted in the
laboratory, not only by accidents such as needlesticks, but
also by the natural route in areas where the vectors are
found if animals are housed outdoors or in inadequately
screened facilities.
Picornavirus Infections
Viruses belonging to the family Picornaviridae include
polio viruses, coxsackieviruses, other enteroviruses, and
rhinoviruses. The susceptibility of nonhuman primates to
poliovirus was reported in 1909, and the use of monkeys
and their tissues for development and production of polio
vaccines was responsible for the importation of many
nonhuman primates before domestic breeding supplies
became available. Naturally occurring poliomyelitis has
been seen in both wild and captive groups of chimpanzees
(
Guilloud et al., 1969; Douglas et al., 1970
), and cox-
sackievirus infection of a laboratory-born infant chim-
panzee has been reported (
Kelly et al., 1978
).
Human rhinoviruses are naturally occurring in chim-
panzees and have been studied in this species and in
gibbons (
Dick and Dick, 1968; Pinto et al., 1972
).
Rubella
Rubella is a togavirus that is transmitted from mother to
fetus and causes abortion or fetal damage in nonhuman
primates, just as it does in people; it can also be fatal in
young animals. Therefore, the concern in primate facilities
is not the zoonotic potential of rubella, but the potential for
handlers to bring infection to the animals.
Prevention
Optimally, all people should be immunized
against the rubella virus for overall public health and,
minimally, all healthcare workers, including those involved
with research using nonhuman primates, should have
documented proof of adequate immunization by serolog-
ical testing or vaccination. Clinical diagnosis of rubella is
unreliable and should not be considered in assessing
immune status. People who do not have a protective titer
should be immunized. The only contraindications for
immunization are pregnancy or recent (within 3 months)
ISG injection (
Centers for Disease Control, 1991
).
Prevention
Precautionary measures, over and above
Biosafety Level 2 procedures, are dependent on the mode
of transmission of each agent, with universal precautions
for bloodborne organisms, enteric precautions for those
with fecal
e
oral spread, and respiratory precautions for
those with aerosol potential.
Rhabdovirus Infections
Rabies virus and vesicular stomatitis virus are rhabdovi-
ruses, both of which have been found naturally occurring in
nonhuman primates. There were 10 documented cases of
simian rabies reported in the USA from 1929 to 1970, but
rabies may be a more frequent disease of nonhuman
primates than commonly thought (
Richardson and Hum-
phrey, 1971
). Rabies remains endemic in all countries from
which nonhuman primates are imported, and ample
opportunity exists for exposure of both free-ranging and
recently trapped animals prior to export.
The possibility of a long incubation period for rabies
infection must be kept in mind. A rhesus monkey experi-
mentally inoculated with a virulent strain of rabies at CDC
did not develop the furious form usually seen 15
e
35 days
postinoculation, but appeared normal in all respects until
the 105th day, when it was found comatose. This means that
an animal infected with rabies could pass the traditional 90-
day quarantine with no evidence of disease and that animals
dying of inapparent causes during (or even shortly after)
quarantine might have rabies. The possibility of rabies
should be considered at necropsy of such animals because it
Arbovirus Infections
Arboviruses, or arthropod-borne viruses, include yellow
fever and dengue, which are discussed with their biohazard
potential as hemorrhagic fever viruses. Many others have
been found and studied in nonhuman primates, including
Chikungunya, which is maintained in vervet monkeys and
baboons and is transmitted by biting flies and mosquitoes
(
DeMoor and Steffens, 1970; McIntosh et al., 1978
);
Kyasanur Forest disease spread by ticks in India (
Rajago-
palan and Anderson, 1971
); and West Nile and Rift Valley
fevers transmitted primarily by mosquitoes (
Davies and
Onyango, 1978; Pogodina et al., 1983
).
Prevention
Biosafety Level 3 or 4 is recommended for
research activities with these arboviruses because of the
demonstrated high potential for laboratory infections and
severe consequences should infection occur (
Centers for
Disease Control/National Institutes of Health, 2009
). It
must be remembered that like the Ebola virus, agents of this
