Biomedical Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
subcutaneous histiocytomas in a rhesus monkey colony at
Yaba, Nigeria. The lesions of Yaba virus infection, experi-
mentally produced in human volunteers by intradermal
injection and accidentally in laboratory workers by needle-
stick, were similar to those seen in monkeys. Nodular
lesions appear 5
e
7 days after intradermal injection, attain
a maximum size of 2
e
5 cm in 3 weeks, and regress spon-
taneously by 6
e
8 weeks postinoculation. However, it is not
uncommon for new tumors to form while others are in
various stages of progression, so it may take several months
for all tumors to regress completely (
Griesemer and
Manning, 1973
).
Molluscum contagiosum, a human poxvirus that
produces papular to papillomatous skin lesions, has been
reported in chimpanzees (
Whitney, 1976
).
Smallpox has been eradicated as a worldwide public
health problem, but recent use of vaccinia virus as a vector
for genetically engineered vaccines against other viruses
such as HBV and HIV has brought the potential for
poxvirus exposure into many primate research facilities
(
Van Eendenburg et al., 1989
).
to list all that have been found naturally occurring or given
experimentally to primate animals. However, representative
members of the major virus groups that have not been
previously discussed should be mentioned.
Measles and Influenza
The measles virus is a member of the human myxopar-
amyxovirus group, which also includes mumps and influ-
enza viruses (
O'Brien and Tauraso, 1973; Muchmore and
Swack, 1978
). Simian virus 5 (SV5), one of the most
common contaminants of both African and Asian monkey
cell cultures, and SV41 are simian viruses of this group
(
Hull, 1969a
).
Measles infection in monkeys, as demonstrated by
experimental infection, presents various clinical
syndromes, ranging from asymptomatic development of
a positive serological titer to the entire clinical syndrome of
fever, leukopenia, conjunctivitis, Koplik's spots on labial
and buccal mucosa, and, finally, a red maculopapular rash
that covers most of the anterior body surface. Studies have
shown that rhesus monkeys from India are free of measles
in their native habitat, but often all members of a newly
imported group will show serological or clinical evidence
of infection within a few weeks after importation (
Hall
et al., 1971
). It is hypothesized that this highly contagious
disease, transmitted by aerosols, is spread throughout
a colony of newly captured animals from one or more
animals infected by human exposure. Measles has been
such an important cause of morbidity and occasional
mortality in newly imported monkeys (
Whitney, 1976
) that
some importers have given the monkeys prophylactic
injections of human ISG upon arrival in this country. Since
sporadic outbreaks of measles continue to occur in the
USA, despite mandatory vaccination for preschool chil-
dren, the potential for infection of animals by newly
infected people, or vice versa, remains a threat. A vacci-
nation program should be instituted if there is substantial
contact with potentially infected individuals
e
especially
college-age students. If the vaccination of colony animals
wil affect future studies there should be careful monitoring
of local populations through state health agencies to iden-
tify any outbreaks. Workers can then be monitored or tested
for antibodies to measles to reduce risks to the colony.
Influenza, experimental and naturally occurring, has
been reported in various species of nonhuman primates,
with documentation of horizontal transmission in baboons
following experimental infection (
Kalter and Heberling,
1973
). Data obtained from a 10-month study of influenza
infection in baboons, chimpanzees, cynomolgus monkeys,
and a group of human volunteers engaged in working with
these animals suggested that the nonhuman primates were
not a potential reservoir, but that they reacted to the virus
present in the area as humans do (
Kalter and Heberling,
1973
).
Prevention
Biosafety Level 2 precautions are recom-
mended. All transmission of simian poxvirus diseases from
nonhuman primates to their handlers in the laboratory
setting has been by accidental needlestick; experimental
intradermal injection; and bites, scratches, or other trauma.
However, experimental aerosol transmission of Yaba virus
has been reported (
Griesemer and Manning, 1973
).
Poxviruses may be present in lesion fluids or crusts,
respiratory secretions, or tissues of infected hosts. Inges-
tion, parenteral inoculation, and droplet or aerosol exposure
of mucous membranes or broken skin with infectious fluids
or tissues are the primary hazards to laboratory and animal
care personnel. Some poxviruses are stable at ambient
temperature when dried and may be transmitted by fomites
(
Centers for Disease Control/National Institutes of Health,
2009
). Therefore, in addition to strict adherence to
universal precautions, special care to disinfect work
surfaces, cages, and the like should be exercised.
All people entering laboratory or animal care areas
where activities with vaccinia, monkeypox, or other
orthopox viruses are conducted should have documented
evidence of satisfactory vaccination within the preceding 3
years (
Centers for Disease Control, 1991
). Vaccine for
administration to laboratory personnel at risk may be
obtained by special request from the Drug Service, Scien-
tific Resources Program, National Center for Infectious
Diseases, Center for Disease Control, Atlanta, Georgia.
Other Viral Infections
Since it appears that all known human viruses can infect one
or more nonhuman primate species, it would be impossible
