Biomedical Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
World Health Organization
50
World Health Organization
52
US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
50
Pan American Health Organization
52
Importing Nonhuman Primates into the USA
50
USA
52
Specific Requirements for Filovirus
50
Europe
53
Publications and Reports
50
Asia
53
Standards
50
Australia
53
European Union
51
Transport
53
Species Conservation
51
International Air Transport Association
54
Conservation
51
Animal Transport Association
54
Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species
Health and Safety
54
51
References
54
Assuring Supply
52
Appendix 1
54
INTRODUCTION
The supply of nonhuman primates has increased dramati-
cally over the last decade, with breeders producing large
numbers of animals in China, Cambodia, Mauritius, and
Vietnam despite the fact that demand for primates remains
relatively stable. However, regulatory protections for
primates vary around the world. Presented here is
a sampling of some of those regulations and guidelines
where applicable, as an oversight framework is absent in
several countries.
The Appendix lists the diverse governmental, not for
profit and other instituitions mentioned in this text.
moral and ethical concerns, concerns on capacity for pain
and distress, animal and human health controls, health and
safety requirements programs to assure supply, and
measures for species conservation.
Internationalization of the Use
of Nonhuman Primates
There is increasing internationalization of research.
Historically there was a perception, fuelled by economic
factors and a paper-based scientific literature, that wide-
spread use of nonhuman primates was localized to the
USA, Western Europe, Japan, and in the past the Soviet
Union. Economic development, particularly in Asia,
combined with the much wider availability of information
(due to political developments and also because of
advances in information technology), has both encouraged,
and publicized the increased global use of nonhuman
primates in biomedical research. Applicable laws, regula-
tions, treaties, convention, policies and organizational
standards continue to evolve where they are already present
and are being developed in many locations where they have
not been present, or adequately developed, so as to address
this wider use. This is being done both nationally and
internationally.
Controls on Use of Animals in Biomedical
Research
Most countries and jurisdictions around the world have
laws, regulations, policies, and other systems of oversight
related to preventing abuse of animals. In many countries
this oversight is extended to research animals. There are
variations in the animal species regulated, in their legal
basis, in their social and cultural perspectives, and in their
implementation. This variability will continue, but there is
generally increasing convergence of the outputs of this
oversight. This chapter will not address in detail the general
requirements for all species used in biomedical research in
depth, as this has been covered elsewhere (
Bayne et al.,
2010
), but focus on the specific requirements when using
nonhuman primates.
Specific Issues with the “Three Rs”
and the Use of Nonhuman Primates
The principles of the Three Rs, consisting of Replacement,
Reduction and Refinement, were developed by the
Universities Federation for Animal Welfare (UFAW)
Scholars, Professors William MS Russell and Rex Burch.
Since their development in 1957, and in particular over the
last 20 years, the Three Rs have increasingly become a key,
if not the leading, ethical principle for the care and use of
animals used in science worldwide (
Bayne et al., 2010
).
Definitions of the Three Rs have evolved over the last half
Specific Requirements for the Use
of Nonhuman Primates
Specific requirements for using nonhuman primates in
research result from a number of factors including species
differences (e.g. monkeys vs. chimpanzees), political
initiatives, cultural and social perspectives, medical needs,
