Biomedical Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
between animals and their caretakers they have a unique
opportunity to detect signs of disease that animals may hide
from veterinarians or other staff. Personnel working with
the same group of animals on a continuous basis often
become familiar with the behavior of individual animals
and may identify subtle changes that others have missed.
During the course of daily husbandry activities, animal care
personnel have the opportunity to observe changes in
appetite, character of feces, amount of water intake, and
quantity or urination. Although any one of these changes
may indicate minor problems, they may be the first sign of
a more serious disease. Accurate assessment of these
changes is possible with consistent daily observations and
good record keeping (
NRC, 1979; ILAR, 2010
).
Observations should be reported to supervisory staff
and ultimately to the veterinarian in charge of animal health
care. Ultimately, these observations should be added to the
animals' permanent medical record. The veterinarian must
examine the reported animals and determine need for care.
Good communication between veterinary staff and animal
care staff can foster an environment where both parties
work together to ensure the best possible animal healthcare.
Animal care personnel must be educated in the normal
behavioral repertoire of the different species housed in the
facility. For example, Saimiri spp. exhibit a greater degree
of activity than Callicebus spp. (
Mendoza, 1991
).
Macaques even differ among species in the degree of
aggressiveness, with M. mulatta and M. nemestrina
exhibiting a higher degree of aggression than M. radiata or
M. arctoides. Behavioral changes in groups of animals or
individual animals may indicate an issue with husbandry
procedures, environmental controls, or may be an early
indicator of a specific illness and should be reported.
Changes in fecal quantity or quality may indicate
gastrointestinal disease and should be reported. Changes in
urine volume or character may be early signs of renal
disease, endocrine disease, or urinary tract infection and
should be reported. Feed left in the cage may indicate
something as minor as recovery from chemical immobi-
lization or may be an early sign of a variety of problems
such as dental disease, dehydration, or renal disease.
Leftover feed may also be secondary to lack of adequate
water, e.g. a blocked water line or lixit, which can lead to
clinical dehydration. Animals experiencing pain post-
surgically or from other intermittent or chronic disease
processes such as endometriosis or arthritis may also
exhibit poor appetite.
examinations coinciding with quarterly TB testing and
preventive medicine examinations.
The approach to the physical examination for a NHP
does not differ significantly from that in other species. As in
all species, it is necessary to become familiar with a normal
physical examination so that abnormalities may be readily
detected. Additionally, there should be a systematic
approach to the physical examination that can be followed
every time thereby preventing accidental oversight of
individual parts of the examination.
Generally, a physical examination starts with a careful
observation of the animal in its home environment prior to
anesthesia. Often much can be determined by observing
how an animal moves and interacts with its environment
and conspecifics. These insights may be lost if the clinician
is first presented with a sedated animal. Following careful
observation, most species will require anesthesia for
a thorough, hands-on, physical examination. This should
begin with an overall assessment of the animal's body
condition, coat quality, and general well-being. Systems for
body condition scoring (
Clingerman and Summers, 2005;
Bauer et al., 2010
) have been published as have plans for
dermatological assessment (
Honess et al., 2005; Kramer
et al., 2011
). Obesity is a well-known risk factor for
secondary diseases including type 2 diabetes (
Huang et al.,
1994; Lane et al., 1999; Wachtman et al., 2011b
). Skin
disease is a well-known concern in NHPs. Alopecia should
be assessed in all NHPs and a plan should be in place for
addressing this issue on an individual animal and colony
wide basis (
Honess et al., 2005; Steinmetz et al., 2005,
2006; Novak and Meyer, 2009; Kramer et al., 2010, 2011
).
Following this general overview, the physical exami-
nation generally works its way from head to tail. The eyes
should be examined for symmetry, any signs of icterus
which may be apparent in the sclera, conjunctivitis, etc. An
examination with an ophthalmoscope is generally not part
of a standard physical examination, but can be included if
deemed clinically necessary. Similarly, the ears should be
examined for gross abnormalities and otoscopic examina-
tion can be performed.
A thorough evaluation of the mouth of the NHP should
occur early in the physical examination. In macaques the
presence of oral or mucocutaneous vesicular lesions may be
indicative of viral shedding of Macacine herpesvirus 1 (B
virus). Although an absence of lesions does not guarantee
an absence of shedding, chances of shedding are increased
in the presence of lesions (1987). One may choose to
reschedule elective procedures of an animal with lesions to
decrease the potential for personnel exposure.
In most NHP species the oral mucosa is a good place to
evaluate mucous membrane color and capillary refill. Other
oral lesions which may have an impact on the health of the
animal include tarter, gingivitis, gingival hyperplasia,
bleeding of
Physical Examination
All animals should be assessed by a veterinarian or trained
veterinary technician during every episode of anesthesia.
At a minimum, a veterinarian should assess all animals
annually, though ideally there should be quarterly physical
the gingiva, and broken teeth. Animals
