Biomedical Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
influence developments in primatology during this time.
The International Union for the Conservation of Nature
(IUCN) was established in 1948 (S. Edwards, personal
communication, 1990). The “Red Data Book” of the IUCN,
containing listings of the survival status of many plant and
animal species, has been used as a primary reference source
for organizations such as CITES and national regulatory
authorities. The Primate Specialist Group of the IUCN
helped develop a “Policy Statement on the Use of Primates
for Biomedical Purposes” that was adopted by WHO in
1982. The statement contains recommendations that
include significant limitations on trapping wild nonhuman
primates and limiting their use to the establishment of
captive breeding projects.
The establishment of the Animal Care Panel in 1950
(later to become the American Association for Laboratory
Animal Science or AALAS), the Institute of Laboratory
Animal Resources (ILAR) with the National Research
Council (NRC) in 1953, and the American College of
Laboratory Animal Medicine (ACLAM) in 1957 has been
well documented (
Cohen and Loew, 1984
). The publica-
tions of the AALAS have provided a major outlet for
dissemination of information on nonhuman primate
husbandry and medicine. In its technical information and
standard-setting role, ILAR has published materials of
fundamental importance to the field. Many veterinary
specialists in laboratory animal medicine certified by
ACLAM have been active in the field of nonhuman primate
medicine as have the members of the American Society of
Laboratory Animal Practitioners (ASLAP) which was
established in 1966.
A workshop for primate veterinarians was initially
organized in 1973. It formally evolved into the Association
of Primate Veterinarians (APV) in 1979. The APV provided
veterinarians with a forum for sharing information, pre-
senting scientific data on nonhuman primate medicine, and
being collectively heard on nonhuman primate matters. In
the field of laboratory animals, this represented the first
move toward sub-specialization and was indicative of how
far nonhuman primate medicine had progressed in little
more than ten years.
The International Primatological Society (IPS) and the
American Society of Primatologists (ASP) began as
multidisciplinary groups interested in advancing and
sharing knowledge in the field of primatology. The
perceived need for sharing primatological information
internationally led to the establishment of the IPS in 1962,
its sponsorship of the biennial international Congress on
Primatology, and publication of the International Journal
of Primatology beginning in 1979 (
Anonymous, 1978
). The
ASP began to sponsor national meetings in the USA in
1976, and its activities have broadened to include areas
such as support for nonhuman primate conservation.
The ASP began publishing the American Journal of
Primatology in the early 1980s. The first issue of the other
major US publication dedicated exclusively to nonhuman
primates, the Journal of Medical Primatology, appeared in
1982.
The Association for Assessment and Accreditation of
Laboratory Animal Care International (AAALAC) was
formally launched in 1965 as a private, nonprofit, volun-
tary accrediting organization whose purpose was to
enhance the quality of research, teaching, and testing
by promoting humane and responsible animal care and
use (
www.aaalac.org
). In 2008, AAALAC's inventory
included 730 accredited organizations, institutions, and
companies in 30 countries worldwide. AAALAC was an
outgrowth in the 1950s of a visionary group of veterinar-
ians, many of whom were also influential in establishing
the AALAS. They believed that a strong accreditation
program was not only necessary for good science but also
to assure a sometimes concerned public audience that the
research community took its ethical responsibility for
using and caring for research animals seriously. Nonhuman
primates have probably been the object of more media and
public attention than any of the other animals used in
research. Medical primatology had much to be thankful to
AAALAC for because of the high standards and increased
institutional
support
that
the
accreditation program
brought with it.
Transition to the 1980s
Patterns of Usage
Levels of usage of nonhuman primates during the 1970s
and 1980s remained relatively constant. Usage generally
ranged from 50 000 to 60 000 animals annually through
1987 (
Hackerman, 1988
). Domestic breeding programs
accounted for the supply of an increasing number of
animals. In 1984, domestic supply and imports totaled
22 591 (
Wolfle, 1983
). Reported national usage for that
year was over 57 000 (
Anonymous, 1985
). Reliable
statistics continued to be difficult to obtain. However, it is
clear that the exchange of nonhuman primates was
becoming more common and that many animals were
being assigned to two or more consecutive projects each
year or were being assigned to more than one project or
activity at the same time. Serious and increasingly
successful efforts were also adopted to reduce the signif-
icant losses associated with the importation of wild caught
animals, which often were heavy. For example, one
importer began effective pre-export quarantine and record
tracking of individual animals in countries of origin that
essentially eliminated losses in quarantine following
importation (
Houghton, 1986
). Adoption of these proce-
duresalsoprovedtobeimportantandtimelyforthe
establishment of the successful breeding programs that
