Biomedical Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
class I alleles found in Mauritian monkeys may make them
good candidates for studies requiring identical or well-
defined test cohorts relative to MHC I and II. Research
where this characteristic may be beneficial includes
immunological studies such as HIV vaccine trials and other
infectious disease or organ/tissue transplant studies
(
Leuchte et al., 2004; Krebs et al., 2005; Van Andel et al.,
2008; Stevison and Kohn 2008
). Indonesian cynomolgus
reportedly are a very good model for studying human
pneumonic plague and possibly other human infectious
diseases (
Van Andel et al., 2008
). Toxicology and other
specific research may have goals and concerns in using
cynomolgus monkeys with low genetic variability. These
populations may have “lost” specific genes over genera-
tions, which could confer a susceptibility to a certain
disease (
Smith et al., 2007
).
Rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta), from captive
breeding in China, were the second most frequently
imported research nonhuman primate in the USA in fiscal
year 2009 (
Mullan, 2009
). It should be pointed out that
similar to genetic, behavioral, and research differences
reported for various origins of Macaca fascicularis,
genetic, behavioral, and research differences also exist
between both Chinese wild and captive-bred rhesus
macaques and Indian-derived rhesus macaques (
Satkoski
et al., 2008
). Indian-derived rhesus monkeys have been
bred domestically by the NPRCs following the embargo on
the export of rhesus from India in 1978. Indian rhesus are
highly sought for use in HIV vaccine research, transplant
studies, and other immunology research due to their rela-
tively well defined and unique MHC I presentation. This
feature is of value in evaluating immune responses between
various test groups in a study. Interestingly, the mtDNA of
Chinese rhesus more closely matches that of the Taiwanese
(Macaca cyclopis) and the Japanese macaque (Macaca
fuscata) than it does the Indian rhesus monkey. Further-
more, free-ranging Chinese rhesus populations show
significant differences in genetic character based upon
geographical division across an East
e
West mapping.
Rhesus monkeys in captive breeding in China may in some
cases represent an admixture of breeders from different
wild Chinese populations (
Satkoski et al., 2008
).
endemic parasitic diseases with specific intermediate hosts
or vectors (Plasmodium sp., microfilaria, trematodes,
cestodes) that are uncommon or not found within the USA.
In this regard, foreign suppliers may have instituted both
preventative programs and prophylactic treatment to block
transmission of these parasites. Continued surveillance for
these parasites upon arrival of these animals in the USA
should still be practiced. The risk of animals' exposure to
certain zoonotic disease may be related to a high prevalence
of the disease within the colony's employees or their
familial contacts. Such disease examples may include
rubeola, Shigella sp., and Mycobacterium tuberculosis. All
nonhuman primate breeding programs must address occu-
pational health and use of primary or personal protective
equipment relative to human / nonhuman primate interac-
tions. Macaque breeding colonies often have a goal of
producing SPF animals (free of SRV, STLV-1, and B virus),
but this goal may pose a diagnostic challenge due to the
lack of local or in-house test systems with adequate
sensitivity and specificity. Furthermore, when PCR capa-
bility is needed, there may be obstacles in sending samples
to a distant laboratory. This is a critical point when trying to
maintain an SPF macaque colony or introduce new animals
for expansion or as replacement breeders. Similarly, when
investigating suspicious disease outbreaks, it may be
difficult to find local laboratories capable of performing
preferred diagnostics (e.g. direct PCR or culture for
Mycobacterium). Retrieving permits to ship samples out of
the country may hinder expedient delivery of samples to
a qualified laboratory.
Securing a consistent and proper nutritionally balanced
diet for the breeding colony is also an area of consternation
in some foreign breeding facilities. Importation of
nonhuman primate chow is often prohibitively expensive.
Availability issues for nonhuman primate diets can be
overcome by working with certified local feed producers.
On occasion there may still be difficulty in obtaining fixed-
formula ingredients. The goal is to provide a stable,
contaminant-free formulated chow that meets NRC
guidelines for the given species. Local feed producers
should have a qualified nutritionist on staff and be equipped
with an adequate means of analyzing the diet being
produced for the breeding colony. Animal drinking water
must also be regularly evaluated as to source, safety, and
sanitation.
Management of foreign breeding operations should be
evaluated relative to the level of training and support of the
staff directly involved in veterinary care, husbandry activ-
ities, and the behavioral/welfare program. Availability of
trained staff with the opportunity to participate in labora-
tory animal science training and continuing education
varies from program to program. In some cases there may
be disparity in the level of formal training when comparing
numerous breeding operations. In such cases, a practical
Challenges to Foreign Breeding
Foreign-sourced research nonhuman primates are expected
to be defined with respect to specific pathogen-free (SPF)
status. Depending upon the location of the breeder, certain
obstacles may need to be addressed relative to managing
SPF production. Implementation of site-specific protocols
addressing species-specific disease surveillance, preventa-
tive medicine, occupational health, and zoonoses training
of employees are necessary. When breeding units are
exposed to the outdoors, there may be concerns related to
