Biomedical Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
primates relied primarily on animals imported from their
native countries of origin. Today, the NPRCs are more
self-sustaining. Additionally, there are several established
commercial breeders of research nonhuman primates in
the USA. However, to meet the demand for research
quality nonhuman primates, in particular cynomolgus
macaques; there is still a critical need to import animals
from breeding programs outside the USA and Canada. In
this discussion, it should be noted that although a large
portion of research involving nonhuman primates remains
in North America, the countries of Japan, Europe, and
China also conduct significant nonhuman primate
research. Furthermore, other Asian countries are working
in this field. The geographical distribution of nonhuman
primate research is not static. The term “foreign breeding
source” in this chapter is meant to define sites apart from
the USA and Canada. A review of US production of
research nonhuman primates
(
Montoya, 2003
). This program continues to provide
animals for scientific research. The Washington NPRC also
supported the inception of a free-range breeding colony of
cynomolgus macaques for research and conservation in
Indonesia on Tinjil Island in 1988
e
1990 (
Kyes 1993
).
Several “in country” commercial breeders of cynomolgus
macaques also began in the mid-1980s, including captive
breeding programs in the Philippines (1983) and in
Mauritius (1985) (
Hobbs et al., 1987; Stanely 2003
). China
began developing captive breeding of imported cyn-
omolgus monkeys to supply biomedical research in 1985. It
is interesting to note that cynomolgus monkeys are not
native to China and that Chinese cynomolgus breeding
centers have imported animals from several origin coun-
tries. China had programs for captive breeding of domestic
rhesus monkeys in 1978 for both conservation and research
purposes. (
Hsu and Jia 2003
). The drive to breed monkeys
for research in source countries reflects the situation during
the 1980s when the majority of cynomolgus monkeys
imported to the USA were feral source and shipped from
Indonesia and the Philippines. By 1994, Indonesia had
enacted guidance to cease export of feral nonhuman
primates
from government or
commercial
sources
is beyond the
scope of
this
discussion.
Foreign breeders of research nonhuman primates may
be located in countries where the particular species is free
ranging (either native or introduced and established) or
alternatively, in countries that rely on importation of the
nonhuman primate species from abroad specifically for
breeding purposes. The location of the foreign breeding
operation may affect the availability of breed stock,
veterinary care, housing, and biosecurity practices.
Important aspects in this regard include characterization of
the research model with respect to phenotype and genotype
of the breeding animals and their offspring; management of
endemic diseases and vectors; species conservation and
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
(CITES) implications; safe and manageable in-transit
handling and biosecurity during animal export to the USA;
proximity to necessary diagnostic resources for SPF
screening, and also the impetus or need to conduct F1
(
Pamungkas
and Sajuthi, 2003
),
and the
Philippines followed suit shortly thereafter.
It is worth noting that several free-ranging populations
of nonhuman primates, introduced into new habitats and
now established, have also been managed as a resource for
behavioral and scientific research. These animals include
rhesus macaques on Cayo Santiago (
Whitehair, 1999
),
African green monkeys in the Caribbean (
Ervin and
Palmour, 2003
), and cynomolgus monkeys on the island of
Mauritius (
Stanely, 2003
).
Current Considerations
Breeding research nonhuman primates outside the USA
remains attractive from a cost perspective. The goals of
foreign breeding centers should continue to focus on
meeting international standards of accreditation as well as on
implementing an industry standard for the level of profes-
sional diversity and training of staff involved in the program.
Current information on the importation of research
nonhuman primates in the USA is reflected in summary
data from the National Center for Infectious Disease, CDC
Division of Quarantine and Migration. During fiscal year
2009, this report documented that a total of 24 414
nonhuman primates were imported into the USA (
Mullan,
2009
). This figure is down slightly from the previous
4 years, which had posted numbers just exceeding 25 000
animals. Of the total imports, 92.3% were cynomolgus
macaques, 5.0% rhesus macaques, and 1.5% African green
monkeys. New World species, represented by squirrel
monkeys and marmosets, combined for 0.7%. The rela-
tively small remainder of the imports included 10 other
þ
breeding. Regardless of their respective locations,
a collaborative relationship should exist between the
research scientist and the supplier so that the research
facility can adequately communicate expectations of
quality and be able to audit the breeding program's
procedures and facilities. On this latter point, recognized
accreditation programs such as Association for Assessment
and Accrediation of Laboratory Animal Care (AAALAC)
may be a useful
indicator of a program's level of
competence.
Breeding research monkeys outside the USA is a well
established practice. An early program to breed nonhuman
primates in the country of origin includes the Peruvian
Primatology Project, which in conjunction with the Pan
American Health Organization began in 1975 to promote
investigation into conservation, management, and repro-
duction of certain New World nonhuman primates
