Biomedical Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
have an important role in parenting behavior and subse-
quent development of the offspring from birth through
maturity (
Cleveland et al, 2004; Hinde and Capitanio,
2010; Sullivan et al., 2011
).
Rejection of macaque infants necessitates either nursery
rearing or fostering of the infant. Fostering is preferable
over nursery rearing due to the physiological and psycho-
logical benefits that maternal rearing offers to infants
(
Fontenot et al., 2004; Watts and Veall, 2004
). However,
essential to the success of fostering is the availability of
lactating dams willing to accept an infant that is not their
own. Multiparous females normally are better foster
mothers than are primaparous females and females that
have previously demonstrated a history of neonatal abuse.
Frequently, fostering may require multiple attempts before
a successful outcome is attained.
If a suitable foster mother is not available or if the infant
is ill and requires clinical treatment, nursery rearing of the
infant may be required (
Sackett et al., 2005
). During the
initial weeks in the nursery, infants should be kept in an
environment with an ambient temperature of 30
e
35
C. At
the New England Primate Research Center, infants are
offered 5% dextrose per os on the day of birth and then
offered commercially available lactose-free infant formula
with iron. The volume of formula is increased weekly from
15 ml per feeding to 35 ml per feeding over the first 4 weeks
of life. Each infant is fed 6 times daily between 7am and
9pm. Then, at 4 weeks formula-soaked chow (Purina
Monkey Chow, 25% protein, Purina Mills, Inc.) mixed with
a small amount of banana is introduced. Over the next
months, the amount of chow (both soaked and hard) is
increased and the infant is gradually weaned off bottle
feeding. To encourage the development of normal behav-
ioral patterns, it is important that nursery-reared infants be
introduced to age-matched peers as soon as feasible.
Should circumstances dictate that an infant is reared in
isolation for an extended period of time, studies have
shown that reversal of abnormal behavioral traits that may
have developed is best accomplished by introducing the
nursery-reared infant to a younger infant that has been
reared by its dam (
Rommeck et al., 2009
). Consequences of
nursery rearing of nonhuman primates can be both physi-
ological and psychological and can last into adulthood.
Important consideration should be given to the necessity of
nursery rearing, the importance of socialization, and in
detail the infant's environment (
Sackett et al., 2002
; see
Chapter 7).
pathogen-free status. Coupled with the increased awareness
of the occupational health and safety risks associated with
working with nonhuman primates, emphasis has been
placed on developing macaque colonies that are free from
common infectious agents (
Holmes et al., 1995; Desrosiers,
1997
).
Developing specific pathogen-free (SPF) rhesus
macaque colonies is a complex process that requires an
understanding of nonhuman primate biology and behavior,
exemplary husbandry techniques, and knowledge of
infectious disease testing, treatment, and control to be
successful. The definition of SPF macaques may vary from
colony to colony depending on which agents have been
targeted for elimination. At the most basic level, the initial
targets for elimination should be Mycobacteria tubercu-
losis and Macacine herpes (BV) virus (
Morton et al., 2008
).
Although BV virus poses few problems for macaques, it
does present a significant risk to personnel. Thus, from an
occupational health viewpoint, most facilities prefer to
utilize animals that are not infected with BV (
Holmes et al.,
1995; Cohen et al., 2002
). In contrast, infections with
M. tuberculosis present a serious health threat to both
humans and nonhuman primates, and therefore, rigorous
testing for this organism is imperative, particularly when
introducing animals from other sources (
Ruch 1959
). In
addition to BV, three other viruses have been targeted for
elimination from macaque colonies designated for use in
SIV/AIDS research: Simian immunodeficiency virus
(SIV), Simian retrovirus D (SRV-D), and Simian T lym-
photropic virus (STLV) (
Mansfield, 2005; Morton et al.,
2008
).
Regardless of the agents identified for exclusion during
formation of SPF colonies, the process is based on repeated
serological testing of founder animals and immediate
removal from the colony of animals that seroconvert
(
Mansfield, 2005
). During the formation of these colonies,
it is essential that there is complete separation of conven-
tional (i.e. seropositive) animals from those identified as
SPF candidates.
Before selection of the animals that will be recruited as
founders for the SPF colony, it is crucial to perform pedi-
gree analysis to ensure sufficient genetic diversity and
representation of multiple family lineages within the
colony. This is particularly important as established SPF
colonies are frequently closed (i.e. all future breeding stock
is recruited from within the colony), and thus, if the initial
population is not carefully selected, the result may be
narrowing of genetic diversity after successive generations
of offspring are born. Pedigree and demographics programs
such as the Pedigree Data Management System (PEDSYS)
system developed by the Southwest National Primate
Research Center (SNPRC), Southwest Foundation for
Biomedical Research, are invaluable in guiding the selec-
tion of founder candidates. With the increasing demand for
Specific Pathogen-free Macaques
Due to the continued increase in sophistication of molec-
ular, genetic, and biochemical modalities used in research,
investigators are also becoming much more specific in their
requirements for rhesus macaques of defined genetic and
