Biomedical Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
this study were significantly more likely to open the panel
when the other animal was female compared to a familiar
or unfamiliar male. Thus, the social needs of males
appeared to be better met by female partners than male
partners. Additionally, consumer demand approaches can
be used to determine how hard primates are willing to work
to gain access to specific enrichment opportunities
(
Schapiro and Lambeth, 2007
).
It is important to point out that enrichment may not
always produce the results we want, such as an increase in
species-typical behaviors. There can be a great deal of
variation among individuals with respect to use of enrich-
ment devices. Individual primates may not use certain
enrichment devices because the devices are too challenging
for them, the object is simply not of interest to them, or
social factors prevent them from accessing the device.
However, providing the enrichment still affords these
individuals the option of whether to use them. Along the
same lines, enrichment does not always reduce abnormal
behaviors. It can be very difficult to ameliorate many
behavioral problems, such as self-injurious behavior and
stereotypies, once they have begun (see Chapter 7).
Therefore, a key focus of behavioral management should
be on prevention. Behavioral management strategies that
focus on prevention include appropriate rearing strategies
(e.g. rearing infants with their mothers, preferably in
a social group) and training staff to properly interact with
the primates.
There are costs and benefits associated with all behav-
ioral management strategies. While some of these costs and
benefits are inherent, others are a function of the institution
and research project and may change over time. Costs are
often measured in terms of monetary expenditures associ-
ated with purchasing the enrichment as well as personnel
time. Other costs include the potential for injury or illness
(
Baer, 1998; Bayne, 2005
). Benefits are typically discussed
in terms of increased psychological well-being or welfare
for the subjects, although there can be other, less obvious
benefits from effective enrichment and behavioral
management. As is discussed below, training primates can
reduce the time it takes to perform basic husbandry tasks
such as weighing or shifting animals between locations
(
Bassett et al., 2003; Veeder et al., 2009
). If cost
Safety Concerns
Enrichment needs to be safe for the animals, for the care-
givers, and for other staff (
Baer, 1998; Young, 2003
).
Enrichment objects should not have sharp edges. Routine
monitoring of enrichment devices is required to ensure
broken enrichment items are removed. Chains or ropes
utilized to hang objects should be short enough or of wide
enough diameter to ensure that accidental choking or
entrapment of a limb is extremely unlikely. They can also
be covered with a length of PVC pipe or other hose-type
material to reduce the risk of entrapment. Enrichment
objects should be able to be properly cleaned and dis-
infected to minimize the chance that they will act as fomites
(
Bayne et al., 1993b
). Further, even simple toys can be
dangerous if ingested. Some items used as enrichment have
resulted in an animal's death from intestinal impaction
(e.g.
Hahn et al., 2000
). Items that contain long fibers (such
as sisal rope or burlap) should be avoided and replaced with
other materials, and animals should be observed to ensure
that they are not consuming these items. In general, new
enrichment items should be observed in a sample of NHPs
before widespread adoption to reduce the chance of injury.
In addition to considering safety concerns regarding the
animals, it is equally important to take safety concerns of
the staff into account. Many enrichment and training
practices necessitate close proximity to nonhuman
primates, thus introducing the potential for scratches or
bites (
National Research Council, 1997
). Therefore, all
institutional safety protocols must be followed when
providing enrichment. Proper personal protective equip-
ment (PPE) including protective clothing, gloves and safety
goggles, or a face shield should be worn. Safety issues
related to the care of nonhuman primates are covered in
detail elsewhere (see Chapter 18;
National Research
Council, 1997
).
Documentation
Documentation is an important element of effective
behavioral management programs for laboratory primates.
Behavioral management “records” should include what
enrichment is given, how often it is given, and some
assessment of whether it is used by the primates. This
documentation should be routinely reviewed to ensure that
the facility's enhancement plan is being adequately
implemented. Documentation should be maintained on
socialization, particularly in situations where primates are
living in indoor cages. This documentation should include
the identities of primates that have been introduced to one
another, the outcome of introduction attempts (i.e.
successful or not), and the reason pairs or small groups have
been separated from one another. For recording enrichment
that has been provided, it may be practical to document
benefit
analyses reveal that the costs associated with the provision
of a particular enhancement outweigh the benefits of that
enhancement, then it is obvious that its use should be
reconsidered. For example, many facilities utilize
commercially available foraging devices as part of their
enrichment program. Some of these devices are expensive,
take a great deal of time to fill and clean (i.e. high cost), and
are emptied by the NHPs within minutes of receiving them
(i.e. low benefit). Behavioral management resources may
be better spent on other forms of enrichment, such as
socializing animals (e.g.
Baker et al., 2007
).
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