Biomedical Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
descriptions of diseases are models for physicians even today. Hippocrates and the school
of Cos trained many individuals, who then migrated to the corners of the Mediterranean
world to practice medicine and spread the philosophies of their preceptor. The work of
Hippocrates and the school and tradition that stem from him constitute the first real break
from magic and mysticism and the foundation of the rational art of medicine. However, as a
practitioner, Hippocrates represented the spirit, not the science, of medicine, embodying
the good physician: the friend of the patient and the humane expert.
As the Roman Empire reached its zenith and its influence expanded across half the world,
it became heir to the great cultures it absorbed, including their medical advances. Although
the Romans themselves did little to advance clinical medicine (the treatment of the individual
patient), they did make outstanding contributions to public health. For example, they had a
well-organized army medical service, which not only accompanied the legions on their
various campaigns to provide “first aid” on the battlefield but also established “base hospi-
tals” for convalescents at strategic points throughout the empire. The construction of sewer
systems and aqueducts were truly remarkable Roman accomplishments that provided their
empire with the medical and social advantages of sanitary living. Insistence on clean drinking
water and unadulterated foods affected the control and prevention of epidemics and, how-
ever primitive, made urban existence possible. Unfortunately, without adequate scientific
knowledge about diseases, all the preoccupation of the Romans with public health could
not avert the periodic medical disasters, particularly the plague, that mercilessly befell its
citizens.
Initially, the Roman masters looked upon Greek physicians and their art with disfavor.
However, as the years passed, the favorable impression these disciples of Hippocrates
made upon the people became widespread. As a reward for their service to the peoples
of the Empire, Julius Caesar (46 BC) granted Roman citizenship to all Greek practitioners
of medicine in his empire. Their new status became so secure that when Rome suffered
from famine that same year, these Greek practitioners were the only foreigners not expelled
from the city. On the contrary, they were even offered bonuses to stay!
Ironically, Galen, who is considered the greatest physician in the history of Rome, was
himself a Greek. Honored by the emperor for curing his “imperial fever,” Galen became
the medical celebrity of Rome. He was arrogant and a braggart and, unlike Hippocrates,
reported only successful cases. Nevertheless, he was a remarkable physician. For Galen,
diagnosis became a fine art; in addition to taking care of his own patients, he responded
to requests for medical advice from the far reaches of the empire. He was so industrious
that he wrote more than 300 topics of anatomical observations, which included selected case
histories, the drugs he prescribed, and his boasts. His version of human anatomy, however,
was misleading because he objected to human dissection and drew his human analogies
solely from the studies of animals. However, because he so dominated the medical scene
and was later endorsed by the Roman Catholic Church, Galen actually inhibited medical
inquiry. His medical views and writings became both the “bible” and “the law” for the
pontiffs and pundits of the ensuing Dark Ages.
With the collapse of the Roman Empire, the Church became the repository of knowledge,
particularly of all scholarship that had drifted through the centuries into the Mediterranean.
This body of information, including medical knowledge, was literally scattered through the
monasteries and dispersed among the many orders of the Church.
