Biomedical Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
world to appreciate lead toxicity and risk. For example,
studies following lead reductions in gasoline and paint
showed marked improvements in lead levels in blood in
many children. Meanwhile, scientific and medical re-
search was linking lead to numerous neurotoxic effects in
PNS and CNS, especially of children. Similarly, stepwise
progressions of the knowledge of environmental risk oc-
curred for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), numerous
organochlorine, organophosphate, and other pesticides,
depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer by halogenated
(especially chlorinated) compounds, and even the effect
of releases of carbon dioxide, methane, and other
''greenhouse gases'' on global warming (though more
properly called global climate change).
stubbornness is quite unscientific. Ironically, scientists are
considered to be searchers of truth no matter where the
journey takes us, yet like most people we have a comfort
zone. Such xenophobia translates into scientific and
ethical myopia. We do not like change and resist it
reflexively, particularly if it means undoing some of our
cherished tenets.
Surprise, even when unwelcome, as Asimov seemed
to say, is a necessary part of the discovery process in
science and in ethics. Women and men of science, both
researchers and practitioners, must simultaneously keep
an open mind and an eye toward better ways of doing
things and must maintain scientific rigor. Thus,
engineering is an intellectually and morally active pursuit.
Questions
1. What do the Agent Orange, Japanese metal, Love
Canal and Times Beach cases have in common?
2. How has ethical responsibility changed since the
early 1900s?
Teachable moment: the whole is greater than the
sum of its parts
Aristotle (384
BC
-322
BC
) is generally credited with the
famous philosophical principle, ''the whole is greater than
the sum of its parts.'' To engineers and scientists, this is
synergy. We also know that in some instances the whole
is less than the sum of its parts, which is antagonism.
Such principles also hold for ethics. These cases have
demonstrated that the combination of a few unethical
decisions can lead to dramatic consequences.
The engineering profession is one of creative
problems solving and optimization. Decisions lead to
events that lead to consequences, which in turn, lead to
other decisions, events, and consequences. At each
decision point, the engineer is presented options. The
design is successful when it meets the needs of the client,
and it provides for the optimal outcome in terms of the
public's health, safety, and welfare. Thus, every design
decision is to some degree an ethical decision. And,
every engineering project is an ethics-laden project. The
design must lie between timidity and recklessness.
Active engineering
An important tenet of ethics and engineering communi-
cations is that we be clear in what we say and mean. The
first step in bioethical analysis is to reach an un-
derstanding about the facts of the matter. So, then, what
is meant when we say that engineering is an ''active''
process? The first definition in the dictionary
36
is ''char-
acterized by action, rather than by contemplation or
speculation.'' This connotation is interesting and valuable
from a number of perspectives. Obviously, the noun
''action'' drives the adjective ''active.'' But among the
definitions of the noun that best fit the adjective's defi-
nition, one seems to stand out; that is, ''the bringing
about of an alteration by force or natural agency.'' Alter-
ation means that something has changed. Engineers hope
and expect the change to be better than what existed
before. However, if this is not the case, it is a type of
failure. Failure in itself is not unethical. Only some fail-
ures are rooted in ethical breaches.
Another interesting aspect of the first dictionary defi-
nition of ''active'' is the contrast between an action and
contemplation or speculation. Contemplation should
precede any action. Prudence dictates that ''you should
look before you leap.'' And, the proper sequence of ethical
or any decision making is ''ready, aim, shoot,'' although
many of us frequently ''ready, shoot, aim.'' In other words,
action-oriented people can have a natural proclivity to act,
even before much or any thinking. This can lead to
addressing symptoms of problems, but not solving the
problems themselves. The definition is not a value judg-
ment, but simply recognizes that the two steps, contem-
plation and action, are unique and sequential.
The most exciting phrase to hear in science, the one
that heralds new discoveries is not ''Eureka,'' (I found
it!) but ''That's funny
.
.''
Isaac Asimov (1920-1992)
One hard and fast rule is that engineers are purveyors of
science; so we do not have the prerogative of messing
with the facts and scientific laws. We must respect factual
information, yet we must be careful not to label something
prematurely as ''correct,'' especially in light of possible
contradicting information. Just because we are
comfortable with the
status quo
is not a sufficient reason
to hold to wrong and invalid arguments. In fact, such
