Biomedical Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
position is self-defeating since even this postulation
cannot be observed! Perhaps, this argues that mind and
brain are separate but interrelated concepts.
Thus, neuroethics must reconcile two perspectives:
(1) the doctrine of psychophysical parallelism, which
hold that a mental state is always accompanied by
a neural activity, and (2) the concept of self, which holds
that the self or person is more than the mental functions,
and also includes temperament or motivation, which are
affected by the physiological systems other than neural
(e.g., endocrine) and, some would argue, nonphysio-
logical factors (e.g., the soul). The first perspective is
most widely held by the neuroscience community, but
the second is the one that is embraced by most people, as
well as many faith traditions. This difference is fodder
for ethical conflict between the professional (e.g., the
treating physician or hospital staff) and the patient. It
may also help to explain the intense conflict in coma and
other cases, such as those where a person is in a perma-
nent vegetative state (PVS).
it is possible that in ignoring societal taboos have we di-
minished humanity, has it ''lessened us, dehumanized us,
and corrupted us?'' This leads to the Council's more
practical questions
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:
1.
What is the most ethically responsible and prudent
public policy for procuring cadaver organs?
2.
Should the current law be changed, modified, or
preserved?
The engineer should be aware that such questions are
being asked and should not assume that all, or even the
majority, of people share the scientific community's
perspective on organ transplantation. In fact, this may be
the first time that a number of readers have heard about
there even being an ethical issue associated with trans-
plants. Suffice to say that the engineer should be aware of
the diversity of opinion and of the likelihood that
a number of his or her clients at a minimum are uneasy
with the current system of transplants and may even be
in outright opposition to the procedure.
Responsible conduct of human
research
Organ transplantation
The debate over organ transplantation touches on
many of the deepest issues in bioethics: the obligation
of healing the sick and its limits; the blessing and
the burden of medical progress; the dignity and
integrity of bodily life; the dangers of turning the body,
dead or alive, into just another commodity; the
importance of individual consent and the limits of
human autonomy; and the difficult ethical and
prudential judgments required when making public
policy in areas that are both morally complex and
deeply important. It is no exaggeration to say that our
attitudes about organ transplantation say much about
the kind of society that we are, both for better and for
worse.
All human beings deserve respect. Those who are sub-
jects of research must provide informed consent.
Whereas philosophers for many centuries have extolled
the virtues of respect, it really was not until 1979, with
the publication of
the Belmont Report: Ethical Principles
and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects
of Research,
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that the inviolable principles were artic-
ulated on how to treat people as research subjects.
Basically this consists of three requirements: (1) respect
for persons; (2) beneficence; and (3) justice.
Animal testing
President's Council on Bioethics, 2003
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Most scientists consider the human body to be like
that of any other organism's body or even no different
than any other system of matter. Thus, many do not see
any moral relevance to organ transplants. The contro-
versy arises when scientists and others set aside moral
attitudes and strongly held convictions about the sa-
credness. This is in opposition to the beliefs of many
people and of a number of faith traditions that see the
human body as something much more than a bunch of
cells. This is not much different from the psychophysical
parallelism between the body and the mind, especially as
it conveys a sense of self. Are we devaluing humanity if
we have a free exchange of organs? The moral question
asked by the President's Council on Bioethics is whether
Respect for animals has increasingly been integrated into
the Western ethos, including rethinking the majority of
the utilitarian perspectives within the medical and bi-
ological research communities. Animals have played
a key role in biomedical research and technological
development.
Animal research points to some of the problems of the
popularly held utilitarian ethical framework, especially
how the model influences compartmentalization and
objectification.
Compartmentalization in thinking is not only a di-
vision of labor, but it is often a survival mechanism for
many professionals engaged in having to live with an
ethical decision. This was best demonstrated in my
