Information Technology Reference
In-Depth Information
as instruments, displays and printed flight manuals, and of a set of practices, such
as the precisely specified protocols for take-off or landing. In order to understand
cognition in such a functional system, it is necessary to analyze the interaction of
individuals, the ways they use artifacts and how all this is influenced by the environ-
ment. The focus is thereby on the question of how information is propagated across
media, which means both internal media (the brain of an individual) and external
media (e.g. a computer or a sheet of paper).
Distributed cognition emphasizes on the need of detailed analysis of such func-
tional systems. As Rogers et al. [125] state, Distributed Cognition informs the de-
sign of computing systems for collaborative work by analyzing how novel systems
might fit into current work practices and in which aspects they might be disruptive.
Ethnographic studies of functional units are a central method for these analyses. For
example, at first glance it might appear reasonable to share documents electronically
within an organization. Yet, an ethnographic analysis of the functional system might
for example show that e-mail is disruptive, as personally handing a physical copy
over to a co-worker might fulfill a communicative purpose other than just passing
the information contained within the document.
The theory of Information Ecologies adopts a similar viewpoint on knowledge
work, even though not from a cognitive but from an anthropological perspective.
Inspired from biological ecosystems, the authors introduce the idea that technology
can be metaphorically seen as an ecology. They define an information ecology to
be a “system of people, practices, values and technologies in a given local environ-
ment”. Their attention is on relationships involving tools, people and their practices.
Note that this is very similar to the functional system of Distributed Cognition.
People correspond to individuals. Practices and values of a local environment corre-
spond to a particular work practice. Technology corresponds to artifacts. Examples
of information ecologies include libraries, self-service copy shops or intensive care
units of hospitals. Like a biological ecosystem, an information ecology is a complex
system of elements (comprising people and tools) which have strong interrelations
and dependencies. It contains a diversity of roles for the people and functions for
tools. In a self-service copy shop, for example, there are such various tools as copy
machines, computers, scanners, paper stock and scissors. If customers need help on
how to use a machine, they can ask one another or get helped by the staff.
The theory of information ecologies introduced two aspects which are of particu-
lar relevance for our domain: The first aspect is related to how an ecology deals with
technological changes. The theory assumes that information ecologies are charac-
terized by a continuous evolution. As novel technologies are integrated into current
work practice, technologies and practices are adapted and mutually assimilated to fit
to each other. Hence, when designing for an ecology, it is crucial to consider existing
practices and to be aware that the novel system will be adapted - consciously or in-
consciously - by the end-users to integrate into the (evolving) ecology. This directly
relates to the second aspect, which the theory calls “locality”. The same technology
(e.g. the same type of computer with the same hardware and software configuration)
can be used very differently in different environments. Hence, the local participants
define the identity and place of the technology. As a consequence, it is the task of
