Ecoinformatics Problems of Global Climate Change - New Ecoinformatics Tools in Environmental Science: Applications and Decision-making - page 392

The observed data were compared with results of numerical modeling using the
GFDL interactive model of the “ atmosphere-ocean ” system taking into account the

radiative forcings due to:

(1) the observed growth of GHGs concentrations, changes of the sulphate aerosol
content in the atmosphere and extra-atmospheric insolation; and
(2) volcanic aerosol; as well as GHGs and sulphate aerosol only.

The resulting comparisons have led to the conclusion that the observed changes
of the ocean heat content can be explained, mainly, by the growth of GHGs con-
centrations in the atmosphere, though one should bear in mind a substantial
uncertainty concerning the estimate of radiative forcings (RF) due to sulphate
aerosol and volcanic eruptions.
Cai and Whetton (2002) drew attention to the fact that the ocean dynamics can
considerably affect future global-scale precipitation. Developments in these dif cult

problems are based on the use of both observed data and results of numerical
modeling, and have led to quite different conclusions. The climatic warming of the
last decades was characterized by the spatial structure similar to that of the El Ni o/

Southern Oscillation (ENSO) event. But since there are no data on such a structure
for the whole century, the observed structure of warming is assumed to be a
manifestation of the multi-decadal natural variability of climate, not the result of the
greenhouse forcing.
Moritz et al. (2002) revealed a substantial inadequacy of climate models as
applied to the Arctic conditions. In most cases, calculated AO (Arctic oscillations)
trends turned out to be weaker compared to observed ones. The calculated climate
warming is greater in the fall over the Arctic Ocean, while the observed warming is
at a maximum in winter and over the continents in spring.
Prestrud et al. (2007) analyzes data about ice and snow in polar and mountain
regions of the world covering all parts of the cryosphere (the world of ice): snow,
land ice, sea ice, river and lake ice, and frozen ground. They present information on
the trends in ice and snow, the outlook for this century and beyond, and the
consequences to ecosystems and human well-being of changes in ice and snow. But
this topic is also about sea-level rise and the islands in the South Paci

ñ

c, and about
shrinking glaciers and the great rivers of Asia. It is about the way the Earth ' s

climate is changing and causing ice and snow to melt — and how melting ice and

snow are changing the Earth s climate.

Singh et al. (2011) published encyclopedia that mainly focuses on the various
aspects of snow, ice and glaciers, but also covers other cryospheric branches, and
provides an up-to-date information and basic concepts on relevant topics. It
includes alphabetically arranged and professionally written, comprehensive and
authoritative academic articles by well-known international experts in individual

'

fields. The encyclopedia contains a broad spectrum of topics, ranging from the
atmospheric processes responsible for snow formation; transformation of snow to
ice and changes in their properties; classi cation of ice and glaciers and their

worldwide distribution; glaciation and ice ages; glacier dynamics; glacier surface
and subsurface characteristics; geomorphic processes and landscape formation;