Information Technology Reference
In-Depth Information
Over at IBM, John Backus convinced his superiors of the need for a higher-level
programming language for IBM computers. He led the effort to develop the IBM Mathe-
matical Formula Translating System, or FORTRAN. Designed for scientific applications,
the first system was completed in 1957. Many skeptics believed that any “automatic pro-
gramming” system would generate inefficient machine code compared to hand-coded
assembly language, but they were proven wrong: the FORTRAN compiler generated
high-quality code. What's more, programmers could write FORTRAN programs 5 to
20 times faster than the equivalent assembly language programs. Most programmers
quickly shifted allegiance from assembly language to FORTRAN. Eventually other com-
puter manufacturers developed their own FORTRAN compilers, and FORTRAN be-
came an international standard [16].
Meanwhile, business-oriented programming languages were also being developed
by several computer manufacturers. Grace Murray Hopper specified FLOW-MATIC,
an English-like programming language for the UNIVAC. Other manufacturers began
to develop their own languages. Customers didn't like incompatible languages, because
it meant programs written for one brand of computer had to be rewritten before they
could be run on another brand of computer. In 1959 an extremely important customer,
the US Department of Defense, brought together a committee to develop a common
business-oriented programming language that all manufacturers would support. The
committee wrote the specification for COBOL. By requiring manufacturers to support
COBOL in order to get defense contracts, the US Department of Defense helped ensure
its widespread adoption [17].
In the early 1960s, John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz at Dartmouth College directed
teams of undergraduate students who developed a time-sharing system and an easy-
to-learn programming language. The Dartmouth Time-Sharing System (DTSS) gave
multiple people the ability to edit and run their programs simultaneously, by dividing
the computer's time among all the users. Time-sharing made computers accessible to
more people because it allowed the cost of owning and operating a computer system
to be divided among a large pool of users who purchased the right to connect to the
system [18].
The development of BASIC, a simple, easy-to-learn programming language, was an-
other important step toward making computers accessible to a wider audience. Kemeny
and Kurtz saw BASIC as a way to teach programming, and soon many other educa-
tional instutions began teaching students how to program using Dartmouth BASIC. The
language's popularity led computer manufacturers to develop their own versions of BA-
SIC [18].
Although the British had radar installations at the beginning of World War II, it be-
came clear during the Battle of Britain that their systems were inadequate. The British
and Americans worked together to develop microwave radar systems capable of locat-
ing enemy planes more precisely. Microwave radar required higher-frequency receivers
utilizing semiconductors, and in the process of manufacturing microwave radar systems
