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ethical theory, joining Kantianism, act utilitarianism, and rule utilitarianism as a way of
evaluating moral problems.
Some moral philosophers criticize Kantianism, utilitarianism, and social contract theory
because they ignore what these philosophers consider to be important aspects of living
a moral life, including moral education, moral wisdom, family and social relationships,
and the role of emotions [6]. Over the past several decades there has been a resurgence
of interest in virtue ethics, an ethical theory that accounts for all of these factors.
Unlike Kantianism, utilitarianism, and social contract theory, which grew out of
the Enlightenment, virtue ethics can be traced all the way back to ancient Greece. The
notion of
arete
, usually translated as
virtue
or excellence, refers to reaching one's highest
potential. The most influential treatment of virtue appears in Aristotle's
Nicomachean
Ethics
, written in the fourth century BC. In this topic Aristotle expresses the opinion
that the path to true happiness and genuine flourishing as a human being lies in living a
life of virtue [27].
According to Aristotle, there are two kinds of virtues: intellectual virtues and moral
virtues.
Intellectual virtues
are those virtues associated with reasoning and truth.
Moral
virtues
, often called virtues of character by today's writers, are habits or dispositions
formed through the repetition of the relevant virtuous actions (Figure 2.9). For example,
you can develop the moral virtue of honesty by habitually telling the truth or performing
other honest actions. In this section our primary focus is on the moral virtues.
A moral virtue is a deep-seated character trait. Consider someone who possesses the
virtue of honesty, for example. An honest person will tell the truth as a matter of course,
will be uncomfortable with even the thought of doing something deceitful, and will not
appreciate being invited by others to join in a dishonest activity. Morally good people
consistently do what is right; it becomes second nature to them.
Note, then, that a moral virtue is not simply a disposition to
act
in a particular way,
it is also a disposition to
feel
in a particular way. According to Aristotle, you can tell a lot
about someone's character by observing what pleases them and what bothers them. He
wrote, “We may even go so far as to state that the man who does not enjoy performing
noble actions is not a good man at all. Nobody would call a man just who does not enjoy
acting justly, nor generous who does not enjoy generous actions, and so on.” [27, p. 16]
Of course, some moral virtues have a more direct connection to the emotions than
others. Courage is a good example of a virtue that has a close connection with the
emotions. In order to be courageous, you must be able to moderate your fear.
As noted earlier, a moral virtue is a deep-seated character trait, and character traits
take time to become deep-seated. Consider a young Boy Scout who is encouraged by his
scoutmaster to take the Boy Scout slogan seriously and “do a good turn daily." The scout
initially responds to this encouragement by actively looking for opportunities to help
