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bad one. If [motives] are good or bad, it is only on account of their effects” [18]. We call
utilitarianism a
consequentialist
theory, because the focus is on the consequences of an
action.
Act utilitarianism
is the ethical theory that an action is good if its net effect (over all
affected beings) is to produce more happiness than unhappiness. Suppose we measure
pleasure as a positive number and pain as a negative number. To make a moral evaluation
of an action, we simply add up, over all affected beings, the change in their happiness. If
the sum is positive, the action is good. If the sum is negative, the action is bad.
Did you notice that I used the word “beings” rather than “persons” in the previous
paragraph? An important decision an act utilitarian must make is determining which
beings are considered to be morally significant. Bentham noted that at one time only
adult white males were considered morally significant beings. Bentham felt that any
being that can experience pain and pleasure ought to be seen as morally significant.
Certainly women and people of color are morally significant beings by this definition,
but in addition all mammals (and perhaps other animals) are morally significant beings,
because they, too, can experience pain and pleasure. Of course, as the number of morally
significant beings increases, the difficulty of evaluating the consequences of an action
also increases. It means, for example, that the environmental impacts of decisions must
often be included when performing the utilitarian calculus.
SCENARIO
A state is considering replacing a curvy stretch of highway that passes along the
outskirts of a large city. Would building the highway be a good action?
Analysis
To perform the analysis of this problem, we must determine who is affected
and the effects of the highway construction on them. Our analysis is in terms of
dollars and cents. For this reason we'll use the terms “benefit” and “cost” instead
of “happiness” and “unhappiness.”
About 150 houses lie on or very near the proposed path of the new,
straighter section of highway. Using its power of eminent domain, the state
can condemn these properties. It would cost the state $20 million to provide
fair compensation to the homeowners. Constructing the new highway, which
is three miles long, would cost the taxpayers of the state another $10 million.
Suppose the environmental impact of the new highway in terms of lost habitat
for morally significant animal species is valued at $1 million.
Every weekday, 15,000 cars are expected to travel on this section of highway,
which is one mile shorter than the curvy highway it replaces. Assuming it costs
40 cents per mile to operate a motor vehicle, construction of the new highway
will save drivers $6,000 per weekday in operating costs. The highway has an
expected operating lifetime of 25 years. Over a 25-year period, the expected total
savings to drivers will be $39 million.
We'll assume the highway project will have no positive or negative effects on
any other people. Since the overall cost of the new highway is $31 million and
