Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
Argyle (1996) synthesises such studies to argue that intrinsic motivation in leisure relates
to three underlying principles:
• social motivation
• basic bodily pleasures (e.g. eating, drinking, sex and sport)
• social learning (how past learning explains a predisposition towards certain activities).
One useful concept which Csikszentmihalyi (1975) introduced to the explanation of
motivation was that of
flow
. Individuals tend to find a sense of intense absorption in
recreational activities, when self-awareness declines, and it is their peak experience—a
sense of flow—which is the main internal motivation. The flow is explained as a balance
resulting from being challenged and skill which can occur in four combinations:
• where challenge and skill are high and flow results
• where the challenge is too great, anxiety results
• if the challenge is too easy, boredom may occur
• where the challenge and skill level is too low, apathy may result.
But this does not mean that everyone always seeks recreational activities which provide
forms of high arousal. Some recreational activities may just fulfil a need to relax, being
undemanding and of low arousal. As Ewert and Hollenhurst (1989) reported, those who
engaged in outdoor recreational sports with a high-risk factor (e.g. white-water rafting)
viewed the sport as providing a flow experience, and the study predicted that as their skill
level improved they would increase the level of participation and risk. Yet even though
this occurred the internal motivation of the group remained unchanged, where low and
high arousal seem to be juxtaposed. Thus levels of arousal vary from time to time, a
factor which can be used by adventure tourism operators to manage the adventure
experience and increase the level of satisfaction of participants (Hall and McArthur 1994;
Egner 2002; Page et al. 2005).
Recreation may also lead to an enhanced self-image, where the identity becomes a
basis for motivation because recreational activities can lead to a sense of belonging to a
particular and identifiable group. Some activities may also require the development of
special skills and enhanced self-esteem. Where recreational activities require a degree of
competency, Bandura (1977) proposed that perception of one's ability to perform the
skill is a motivator and may result in self-efficacy, a form of self-confidence and
judgement of one's ability.
In spite of the significance of motivation, it is apparent that no single theory or even a
clear consensus exists in relation to recreation. Instead, 'in theories of motivation need is
seen as a force within the individual to gain satisfactions and completeness. There appear
to be many levels and types of need, including the important needs of self-actualisation
and psychological growth' (Torkildsen 1992:86). An understanding of needs and intrinsic
motivation and some of the ideas implicit in studies of recreational motivation may offer
a range of insights into why people engage in recreational activities. But not only is it
necessary to understand why people engage in recreation, but also what factors or barriers
may inhibit them from participating. Torkildsen (1992) outlines the influences on leisure
participation in terms of three categories: personal, social and circumstantial, and
opportunity factors. These influences (Table 2.3) are also of value in understanding some
of the constraints on recreation.
