Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
Figure 2.2:
Maslow's hierarchy of
needs
A different perspective is offered by Bradshaw (1972), who argued that social need is a
powerful force, explaining need by classifying it as normative, felt, expressed and
comparative need. Mercer (1973), Godbey (1976) and McAlvoy (1977) extended
Bradshaw's argument within a recreational context, modifying the four categories of need
by adding created, changing and false needs. Normative needs are based on value
judgements, often made by professionals who establish that what they feel is appropriate
to the wider population. Felt needs, which individuals may have but not necessarily
express, are based on what someone wants to do and is a perceived need. Expressed
needs relate to those needs and preferences for existing recreational activities which are
often measured but can only be a partial view of demand, since new recreational
opportunities may release latest demand. Comparative needs are apparent where existing
provision for the general population is compared with special groups (e.g. disabled or
elderly people, or ethnic minorities) to establish if existing provision is not fulfilling the
needs of the special group. Created needs may result from policy-makers and planners
introducing new services or activities which are then taken up by the population. A false
need is one that may be created by individuals or society, and which is not essential and
may be marginal to wider recreational needs. Changing needs, however, are a recognition
of the dynamic nature of human needs which change through time as individuals develop
and their position in the life cycle changes. Thus what is important at one point in the life
cycle may change through time as an individual passes through four key stages (Ken and
Rapoport 1975):
• youth (school years)
• young adulthood
• establishment (extended middle age)
• final phase (between the end of work and of life).
Other researchers (e.g. Iso-Ahola 1980; Neulinger 1981) prefer to emphasise the
importance of perceived freedom from constraints as a major source of motivation.
