Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
passive recreation is by far the most important type numerically, it is difficult to study
due to its diffuse and often unorganised nature. Coppock and Duffield (1975) argued that
Active recreation in the countryside differs from passive recreation in a
number of ways. Not only are participants a minority of those visiting the
countryside for outdoor recreation, but they are generally younger and
differ in respect of a number of socio-economic characteristics: they often
depend on particular (and sometimes scarce) recreational resources in the
countryside…yet as with passive recreation, information about such
activities is scanty.
(Coppock and Duffield 1975:40)
This illustrates the necessity of trying to measure recreational demand together with
gauging the types of factors which can facilitate and constrain recreational demand. But
what motivates people to engage in recreational activities?
Argyle (1996) argues that part of the reason why people undertake leisure and
recreational activities can be found in the process of socialisation and personality traits,
where childhood influences such as parents and peers are forms of social influence and
learning that affect future activity choice. In fact, nearly half of adult leisure interests are
acquired after childhood, and personality factors influence preferences towards specific
forms of recreation. However, understanding the broader psychological factors which
motivate individuals to undertake forms of recreation is largely the remit of
psychologists, being an intrinsic form of motivation (i.e. something one is not paid to
undertake).
A simplistic approach to recreational motivation is to ask recreationalists what actually
motivates them. Crandall (1980) outlined seventeen factors from leisure motivation
research (Table 2.1), derived from a synthesis of previous studies in this field, while
Kabanoff (1982) identified a similar list of factors (Table 2.2). From Tables 2.1 and 2.2 it
is apparent that relaxation, the need for excitement and self-satisfaction are apparent,
though Argyle (1996) argues that specific motivations are evident in particular forms of
recreation. Torkildsen (1992:79), however, posits that homeostasis is a fundamental
concept associated with human motivation where people have an underlying desire to
maintain a state of internal stability. Human needs, which are 'any lack or deficit within
the individual either acquired or physiological' (C.Morgan and King 1966:776), disturb
the state of homeostasis. At a basic level, human needs have to be met where
physiological theory maintained that all human behaviour is motivated. This leads to one
of the most commonly cited studies in relation to recreation and tourism motivation—
Maslow's hierarchy of human needs.
Maslow's hierarchy model of human needs and recreational and
tourist motivation
Within the social psychology literature on recreation and tourism, Maslow's (1954) needs
hierarchy remains one of the most frequently cited theories of motivation. It follows the
principle of a ranking or hierarchy of individual needs (Figure 2.2), based on the premise
that self-actualisation is a level to which people should aspire. Maslow argued that if the
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