Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
development has been spatially focused on the beach for much of the post-war years, as
witnessed, for example, in the slogan of the four 'S's' of tourism—sun, sand, surf and
sex—the coastal and the marine environment as a whole has become one of the new
frontiers and fastest growing areas of the world's tourism industry (M.L.Miller and
Auyong 1991). The exact numbers of marine tourists remain unknown. Nevertheless, the
selling of 'sun, sand and surf experiences', the development of beach resorts and the
increasing popularity of marine tourism (e.g. fishing, scuba diving, windsurfing and
yachting) has all placed increased pressure on the coast, an area for which use may
already be highly concentrated in terms of agriculture, human settlements, fishing and
industrial location (M.Miller 1993; ESCAP 1995a, 1995b). However, because of the
highly dynamic nature of the coastal environment any development which interferes with
the natural coastal system may have severe consequences for the long-term stability of
the environment (CicinSain and Knecht 1998). Indeed, in the United States, the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) (1997) recognised that:
Of all the activities that take place in coastal zones and the near-shore
coastal ocean, none is increasing in both volume and diversity more than
coastal tourism and recreation. Both the dynamic nature of this sector and
its magnitude demand that it be actively taken into account in government
plans, policies, and programs related to the coasts and ocean. Indeed,
virtually all coastal and ocean issue areas affect coastal tourism and
recreation either directly or indirectly. Clean water, healthy coastal
habitats, and a safe, secure, and enjoyable environment are clearly
fundamental to successful coastal tourism. Similarly, bountiful living
marine resources (fish, shellfish, wetlands, coral reefs, etc.) are of critical
importance to most recreational experiences. Security from risks
associated with natural coastal hazards such as storms, hurricanes,
tsunamis, and the like is a requisite for coastal tourism to be sustainable
over the long term.
The concept of coastal tourism embraces the full range of tourism, leisure and
recreationally oriented activities that take place in the coastal zone and the offshore
coastal waters. These include coastal tourism development (accommodation, restaurants,
food industry and second homes) and the infrastructure supporting coastal development
(e.g. retail businesses, marinas and activity suppliers). Also included are tourism
activities such as recreational boating, coast- and marine-based ecotourism, cruises,
swimming, recreational fishing, snorkelling and diving (Miller and Auyong 1991; Miller
1993). Marine tourism is closely related to the concept of coastal tourism but also
includes ocean-based tourism such as deep-sea fishing and yacht cruising. Orams
(1999:9) defines marine tourism as including 'those recreational activities that involve
travel away from one's place of residence and which have as their host or focus the
marine environment (where the marine environment is defined as those waters which are
saline and tide-affected)'. Such a definition is significant, for as well as having a
biological and recreational base it also emphasises that consideration of the elements of
marine and coastal tourism must include shorebased activities, such as land-based whale
