Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
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Resource availability
variation of resource availability (e.g. the opening and closing of
tracks in alpine areas) may act to alter the presence of people at recreational sites.
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Accessibility
distance (expressed in terms of time, cost, spatial or perceived distance)
will affect crowding and densities, particularly if there is little or no recreation
resource substitution.
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Management strategies
management can intervene directly (e.g. use restrictions), or
indirectly (e.g. de-marketing) to reduce visitor numbers at recreation sites.
Shelby et al. (1989) also investigated the hypothesis that crowding perceptions would
vary according to the type of recreational use, although they were not able to resolve this
hypothesis. However, research by Higham (1996) indicates that recreational use history is
a substantial factor in influencing perceptions of crowding.
Concerns over crowding are closely related to issues of social carrying capacity in
wilderness and outdoor recreation areas. Social carrying capacity in recreation areas 'has
typically been defined as a use level beyond which some measure of experiential quality
becomes impaired' (Graefe et al. 1984b:500). However, as Chapter 6 noted, there is no
'absolute value' of social carrying capacity, there is no single response to specific levels
of use in a particular area. Instead, indicators of social or behavioural capacity will be
dependent on the management objectives for a given recreation site (Graefe et al. 1984a).
Shelby and Heberlein (1986:21) therefore refined this definition to read: 'Social carrying
capacity is the level of use beyond which social impacts exceed acceptable levels
specified by evaluative standards.'
Several factors have been identified as influencing crowding norms, with a number of
variables contributing to the interpretation of increasing recreational use density as
perceived crowding (Manning 1985):
• visitor characteristics: motivations, preferences and expectations, previous use
experiences, visitors' attitudes towards wilderness
• characteristics of those encountered: type and size of groups encountered, behaviour of
those encountered, perceptions of alikeness
• situational variables: type of area and location within an area.
Manning (1985) concluded that crowding norms are extremely diverse, yet the
significance of visitor characteristics as a factor and the psychographic variables which
comprise this factor indicate the possibility of a high degree of agreement being reached
on crowding norms within particular subsets of the recreational population. This latter
possibility highlights the importance of managers having a good understanding of the
psychographic and demographic profiles of their visitor base in order to optimise levels
of visitor satisfaction and attainment of management objectives (Hall and McArthur
1998).
Density alone provides no measure of visitor satisfaction. Satisfaction will be
determined by expectations, prior experiences and commitment to the recreational
activity. Perceptions of crowding are therefore influenced by use densities, but this
relationship is mediated by a range of other factors and variables (Graefe et al. 1984a).
Indeed, a range of reactions or coping strategies are possible in recreationalist response to
decreased recreational satisfaction, which may result not only from crowding, but also
from such factors as littering, noise and worn out camp sites (e.g. Anderson and Brown
1984). Such reactions include
