Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
(1995:213) outlines the impact of such changes for post-industrial towns and cities, as
older central areas of towns decayed as they lost their economic rationale. In some cases
this has led to the creation of space for recreation, as high-density housing and industry
has been removed and urban regeneration results.
Williams (1995) also points to the effect of the rise of environmentalism since the
1960s, reflected in the concept of the 'green city' where redundant space is 'greened' to
enhance the quality of the city environment while adding recreational opportunities (e.g.
greenways, linear parks, green wedges and natural corridors). The greening of cities also
has a wider concern with the sustainability of urban life. Williams (1995) also argues that
a range of factors militate against the continued well-being of urban recreation provision,
many of which are associated with political change outlined in detail by Page et al.
(1994). A greater concern with financial costs of publicly provided services, more
efficient service delivery and the introduction of compulsory competitive tendering
(Benington and White 1988; Page et al. 1994) has characterised public and private sector
recreational provision in urban areas in the 1980s and 1990s. Henry (1988) argued that
the outcome will be determined by the political climate and philosophy prevailing in
public sector environments, fluctuating between a limited role for the state characterised
by right-wing ideology, to one based on principles of social equity and significant levels
of public intervention influenced by principles of equality.
In the UK in the new millennium, New Labour has sought to critically analyse the
quality of the urban environment, given the previous twenty years of changing policies to
towns and cities to improve their liveability. A number of notable developments
emanating from the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (ODPM) include the Cleaner,
Safer, Greener Public Space (ODPM 2002) report which identified a typology of open
space in cities that could be divided into green space, comprising parks, gardens, amenity
green space, children's play areas, sports facilities, green corridors, natural/ semi-natural
green space and other functional green space, and civic space, comprising civic squares,
marketplaces, pedestrian streets, promenades and seafronts.
Improving these environments has been achieved, via a Liveability Fund in England,
with £89 million allocated for 2003-6 supported by other specific green space initiatives
such as the establishment of the Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment
(CABE), to champion parks and green space in cities to stimulate an urban renaissance in
their planning, management and redevelopment after neglect over previous years.
(CABE's rationale and focus for action can be found in its various position statements at
http://www.cabespace.org.uk/.) CABE recognised the importance of cities having green
space strategies, since those which possessed them had better quality green space. Other
bodies such as the Urban Parks Forum have also been an effective lobby to improve the
green space in cities as a basis for social improvements to the liveability of city
environments and the residents' quality of life. In fact Toronto has just launched a Green
Tourism Map which extends the concept of green recreational activities to visitors who
are not aware of the adventures and experiencees available in the city (see
http://www.greentourism.ca/).
Curry (2000) examined one area of activity, the growth of community participation in
outdoor recreation opportunities in urban areas resulted from threats posed by the freeing
up of the planning system in the 1980s and 1990s, with the progressive loss of less formal
open space. One of the main pressures on local authorities to sell vacant land for
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