Information Technology Reference
In-Depth Information
It has been argued that we are at the fringes of the next generation of distance
education associated with the wide use of mobile-learning technologies. It will be
characterized by greater flexibility and interactivity, with individuals able to learn
from “anywhere.” It will also be associated with greater capabilities for establishing
virtual learning communities and social networks, and the uses of technologies such
as electronic portfolios, logs, and wikis (Connolly & Stansfield, 2006; The New
Media Consortium & EDUCAUSE Learning Initiative, 2009).
Perspectives on learning and development:
Studies of teacher learning have been
shifting from a focus on individual teacher understandings, toward research into
the ways in which understandings are developed in social contexts (Peressini &
Knuth,1999; Nichols & Tobin, 2000; Horn, 2005; Kelly, 2006). Sociocultural the-
ory provides a conceptual foundation for this shift. Sociocultural approaches define
mental actions in terms of the cultural, historical, and institutional settings in which
they occur (Vygotsky, 1978; Wertsch, 1991). Mental action is therefore mediated
by social contexts. One of the foundational constructs of sociocultural theory is the
zone of proximal development (ZPD). It was introduced by Vygotsky as a basis
for studying how individuals learn in social contexts. The ZPD is the gap between a
learner's current level of development when not socially supported, and the learner's
potential development when placed within a relationship with a more knowledge-
able other. The concept of the ZPD is applicable to dyads (i.e., relations between
two persons) and to learning communities. Learning communities are constituted by
individuals with a mutual interest. They draw on each other's experiences and make
collective use of cultural resources to scaffold learning (Moll & Whitmore, 1993).
Learning is supported by simultaneously establishing and sustaining multiple zones
of proximal development of the members (Daniels, 2001).
Bakhtin provides a complementary perspective to Vygotsky (Wertsch, 1991). A
basic premise of Bakhtin's work is that no voice is isolated and each person is influ-
enced by others in an inescapably intertwined way. He therefore believed that truth
was dialogic in the sense that it was constructed out of the engagement of a multi-
plicity of voices, and through a commitment to the context of real-life events. The
quest for understanding should be at the point of dialogic contact between people
engaged in discourse (Honeycutt, 1994). Bakhtin drew distinctions between author-
itative and dialogic discourses (Wertsch, 1991). Authoritative discourses are closed
to interpretation and transmit fixed meanings (Scott, Mortimer & Aguiar, 2006).
By dialogic, Bakhtin meant discourses where meanings are discursively negotiated
and created. Dialogic discourses provide a firmer foundation for establishing truth
claims than authoritative discourses. Daniels (2007) has suggested that dialogic
discourses may be supported by promoting constructive discussion, questioning,
criticism, and negotiation of meaning as an integral part of practice.
A more expansive view of learning:
Learning entails more than changes in knowl-
edge and skill. A more adequate view of learning should factor in the consideration
that there are changes is self-understandings that are usually associated with changes
in knowledge and skill. As an example, changes in role and function within orga-
nizations are emotionally charged with consequence and are anxiety-producing
(van Maanen & Schein, 1979). Rather than seeking change, individuals tend to
