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of thinking about the nature of science (National Research Council, 2000). The
National Research Council (2000, p. 25) describes the outcomes of inquiry in terms
of five essential attributes:
1. Learners who are engaged by scientifically oriented questions.
2. Learners who give priority to evidence, which allows them to develop and
evaluate explanations that address scientifically oriented questions.
3. Learners who are able to formulate explanations from evidence to address
scientifically oriented questions.
4. Learners who are able to evaluate their explanations in light of alternative
explanations, particularly those reflecting scientific understanding.
5. Learners who are able to communicate and justify their explanations.
The success of the reform agenda will depend on teachers who understand these
goals and are able to transform them into classroom practice (Lederman, 1999;
Johnson, 2006). Although teachers have been recognized as primary change agents,
they generally lack clarity about the meaning of the reform concepts and how they
can be translated into classroom practice within the complex culture of the school
(Wee, Shepardson, Fast, & Harbor, 2007; Wallace & Kang, 2004). The success of
these reforms will depend on teacher learning that is continuous and extends beyond
initial teacher certification (Borko, 2004; Ball & Cohen, 1999; Villegas-Reimers,
2003; McGrath, 2008). Providing and sustaining professional development can be
difficult. Teachers face barriers to access such as commitments to full-time jobs,
family and community responsibilities, as well as distance from learning centers.
Conceptual Framework
As adult learners, teachers bring a considerable reservoir of prior knowledge
when they enroll in professional development programs (Knowles 1978, 1980).
Nevertheless, there is evidence that teachers generally find reforms difficult to
implement even when they participate in professional development programs (Wee
et al., 2007; Davis, 2003). We do not have an adequate understanding of how teach-
ers conceptualize reform, how the conceptions are formed and sustained in specific
contexts of practice (Windschitl, 2004). These limitations reflect inadequacies in
how teacher knowledge is conceptualized. Teacher knowledge has tended to be
understood from a cognitivist perspective (Kelly, 2006). Cognitivism discounts or
marginalizes contexts and treats knowledge solely as a property of isolated individ-
uals. Professional development will be more effective when it affords participants
opportunities to critically reflect on knowledge in the context of their practices. One
way of achieving this is to incorporate participatory and interactive design elements
that privilege dialogue and meaning making. The emergent capabilities of web-
based digital technologies afford design opportunities that are consistent with these
principles (Mitra & Hall, 2002).
