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is often utilized in the field of intelligent tutoring systems (ITSs), and typically
involves establishing training practices, developing automated instruction, and then
amending motivational elements. While this development cycle can take years
for completion because each step requires an iterative process of both execu-
tion and evaluation, it also has a greater chance of success. We illustrate such
a cycle in this chapter in the evolution of an intelligent tutoring and gaming
environment [i.e., interactive Strategy Trainer for Active Reading and Thinking-
Motivationally Enhanced (iSTART-ME)] from an ITS (i.e., iSTART), which was
originally conceived and tested as a human-delivered intervention (i.e., SERT).
The training programs discussed in this chapter (i.e., SERT, iSTART, and
iSTART-ME) were designed with the common goal of improving students' abil-
ity to comprehend text. These interventions were inspired by previous research
demonstrating that self-explanation improves comprehension and problem solv-
ing (Bielaczyc, Pirolli, & Brown, 1995; Chi, de Leeuw, Chiu, & Lavancher,
1994). Leveraging this research, a reading comprehension intervention, called
Self-Explanation Reading Training (SERT), was developed to teach students self-
explanation and reading strategies to improve their understanding of challenging
texts. SERT was developed as a classroom based human-to-human training program,
and evaluations have shown that it is effective at improving students reading com-
prehension (McNamara, 2004b; O'Reilly, Taylor, & McNamara 2006). SERT was
found to produce significant improvement in comprehension and strategy use, how-
ever it lacked the potential to scale up to widespread use while maintaining effective
instruction. Due to these limitations of the human-based SERT intervention, an ITS
was developed. The iSTART is an ITS developed and adapted directly from the
SERT pedagogical intervention. The transition from SERT to iSTART improved
on both the pedagogy and social reach of the training. iSTART was also found
to promote significant learning and improve students' ability to self-explain texts
(O'Reilly et al., 2004a; O'Reilly, Sinclair, & McNamara, 2004b). The advancement
of iSTART afforded students with individualized training on a widespread scale,
however, after repeated exposure and sustained practice, students can become dis-
engaged, they lack sufficient motivation to use the program effectively, and begin
to display negative affect toward the learning task. Hence, iSTART-ME has been
developed to remedy the motivational problems inherent to the long-term use of
iSTART. This conversion preserves the iSTART pedagogy, but envelopes it within
a gaming environment. The impetus behind each of these transitions has been to
improve upon the efficacy of training by revising some aspects of the pedagogical
implementation and rendering individualized training more accessible to students.
The following chapter describes these programs, their success, and the changes from
one to the next.
Self-Explanation Reading Training
SERT (McNamara, 2004b) is a human-to-human training program designed to
teach students how to generate effective self-explanations by using effective
