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main learning process, students may make more long-term alterations to the strate-
gies that make up SRL, such as the addition or deletion of conditions or operations,
as well as changes to the ways conditions cue operations (Winne, 2001). The output
(performance) is the result of recursive processes that cascade back and forth, alter-
ing conditions, standards, operations, and products as needed. In sum, this complex
model leads to several assumptions that have guided the design and development of
MetaTutor.
Theoretical Assumptions about SRL and MetaTutor
MetaTutor is based on several assumptions regarding the role of SRL during learn-
ing about complex and challenging science topics. First, learners need to regulate
their SRL processes to effectively integrate multiple representations (i.e., text and
diagram) while learning complex science topics in CBLEs (Azevedo, 2008, 2009;
Jacobson, 2008; Mayer, 2005; Niederhauser, 2008). Second, students have the
potential to regulate their learning but are not always successful for various reasons,
such as extraneous cognitive load imposed by the instructional material (Sweller,
2006); lack of or inefficient use of cognitive strategies (Pressley & Hilden, 2006;
Siegler, 2005); lack of metacognitive knowledge or inefficient regulatory control of
metacognitive processes (Dunlosky & Bjork, 2008; Dunlosky & Metcalfe, 2009;
Dunlosky, Rawson, & McDonald, 2002, 2005; Hacker et al., 2009; Schraw, 2006;
Schraw & Moshman, 1995; Veenman, Van Hout-Wolters, & Afflerbach, 2006);
lack of prior knowledge (Shapiro, 2008); or developmental differences or limited
experience with instructional practices requiring the integration of multiple rep-
resentations or nonlinear learning environments (Azevedo & Witherspoon, 2009;
Pintrich & Zusho, 2002).
Third, the integration of multiple representations during complex learning with
hypermedia environments involves the deployment of a multitude of self-regulatory
processes.
Macrolevel processes
involve executive and metacognitive processes
necessary to coordinate, allocate, and reallocate cognitive resources, and medi-
ate perceptual and cognitive processes between the learner's cognitive system and
external aspects of the task environment.
Mid-level processes
such as learning strate-
gies are used to select, organize, and integrate multiple representations of the topic
(Ainsworth, 1999, 2006; Mayer, 2001, 2005; Schnotz, 2005). These same mid-level
control processes are also necessary to exert control over other contextual compo-
nents that are critical during learning (Aleven, Stahl, Schworm, Fischer, & Wallace,
2003; Newman, 2002; Roll, Aleven, McLaren, & Koedinger, 2007). Researchers
have identified several dozen additional learning strategies including coordinat-
ing informational sources, summarizing, note-taking, hypothesizing, drawing, etc.
(Azevedo, 2008; Van Meter & Garner, 2005).
Fourth, little is understood regarding the nature of SRL processes involved in
the integration of multiple external representations that are needed to build inter-
nal knowledge representations that support deep conceptual understanding, problem
