Information Technology Reference
In-Depth Information
forming plural possessives confuses their prior understanding,
retroactive interfer-
ence
has occurred. Students' understanding of plural possessives and contractions
can interfere with their understanding of singular possessives and vice versa.
Studying closely related ideas—such as communism and fascism, longitude and
latitude, and adding fractions with similar and different denominators—together is
perhaps the most effective strategy that exists for reducing interference (Hamilton,
1997). In doing so, we recognize similarities and differences and identify areas that
are easily confused.
We can also reduce interference by reviewing previously studied material before
we move to a new topic, which activates prior knowledge and provides a bridge to
the new topic.
Forgetting as Retrieval Failure
Retrieval
is the process of pulling information from long-term memory back into
working memory, and many researchers believe that “forgetting” is actually the
inability to retrieve information from long-term memory (Williams & Zacks, 2001).
We have all had the experience of realizing that we know a name, fact, or some other
information, but we simply cannot pull it up.
Retrieval depends on context and the way information is encoded (Williams &
Zacks, 2001). For instance, you know a person at school, but you cannot remember
his name when you see him at a party; his name was encoded in the school context,
and you are trying to retrieve it in the context of the party.
Meaningfulness is the key to retrieval. The more detailed and interconnected
knowledge is in long-term memory, the easier it is to retrieve (Nuthall, 1999a).
Practice to the point of automaticity also facilitates retrieval (Chaffen & Imreh,
2002). When students know their math facts to the point of automaticity, for exam-
ple, they can easily retrieve them for use in problem solving, leaving more working
memory space to focus on solutions.
Metacognition: Knowledge and Control of Cognitive Processes
Have you ever said to yourself, “I'm going to sit near the front of the class so I
won't fall asleep,” or “I'm beat today. I'd better drink a cup of coffee before I go
to class.” If you have, you were being metacognitive.
Metacognition
, commonly
described as “knowing about knowing,” is our awareness of and control over our
cognitive processes, and
meta-attention
, knowledge of and control over our ability
to pay attention, is one type of metacognition (Meltzer, Pollica, & Barzillai, 2007;
Pressley & Hilden, 2006). You were aware of the fact that your drowsiness might
affect your ability to attend, and you exercised control over it by sitting near the
front of the class or drinking a cup of coffee. Metacognition also explains why we
make lists. We realize that we may forget to pick up some items at the store, and we
exercise control by writing the items on a list.
