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(2006, see above) used 102 deep questions in their full-questions vicarious condition
that outperformed the half-questions condition, which included 51 questions.
Findings in the question + explanation conditions in the two preliminary studies
are very encouraging. As noted above, Chi et al. (2001), Chi (2000), King (1994),
and King et al. (1998) have shown that overt self-explanations encourage learners to
engage in the kinds of deep reasoning activities that fill knowledge gaps and relate
current content to a rich network of related material. Future research will determine
the relationship between deep questions and explanations in promoting vicarious
learning, but it does seem clear that vicarious explanatory statements relating the
current content to earlier information show considerable promise.
Several readily implemented features of computerized multimedia environments,
then, have been shown to support vicarious learning processes. Combining either
written tutorial dialog or carefully crafted instructions with dynamic diagrams pro-
duces significant increments when contrasted with either dynamic diagrams or
written text alone (Mayer, 2001; Sweller, 1999). Deep-level reasoning questions
that precede statements containing course content presented by voice engines were
shown to produce consistent learning gains that significantly exceed those produced
by several other conditions, including presenting the course content alone, combin-
ing it with surface-level questions, or combining it with declaratives (Craig et al.,
2000; Driscoll et al., 2003). Deep question conditions were also shown to produce
greater learning gains than an intelligent tutoring system (AutoTutor) that produces
learning gains of 1.0-2.1 standard deviation units (Craig et al., 2006; Gholson
et al., 2009). Finally, preliminary research indicates that providing vicarious expla-
nations, analogous to “self-explanations,” that link current content to previously
presented materials shows some promise of supporting learning gains similar to
those produced by deep questions.
Overt Activities Designed to Support Vicarious
Learning Processes
In this subsection we illustrate selected research in which learners engaged in
various overt activities designed to enhance the cognitive activities that sup-
port vicarious learning in multimedia environments. Rummel and Spada (2005)
investigated the acquisition of collaborative problem solving skills using a video
conferencing system. Dyads of students, one psychology student and one med-
ical student, collaborated on diagnosis and treatment plans for cases involving
psychological disorders that coincided with physical illnesses. Case 1, panic dis-
order combined with cardiac dysrhythmia, was used in the learning phase of the
study. Case 2, depression plus multiple sclerosis, was used in the application phase.
Because both medical and psychological aspects of each case had to be considered,
both psychological and medical knowledge were needed for effective diagnosis and
treatment.
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