Basic Principles of Soil Carbon Management for Multiple Ecosystem Benefits - Soil Carbon: Science, Management and Policy for Multiple Benefits - page 268

Agricultural goods Soil-based delivery

processes

Aggregate ecosystem
functions

Food and fibre Nutrient capture and

cycling

OM input
decomposition

1. C transformations

SOM dynamics

Soil structure
maintenance

Biological population
regulation

Non-agricultural services Soil-based delivery

processes

2. Nutrient cycling

Water quality and supply Soil structure

maintenance

Nutrient cycling

3. Soil structure
maintenance

Erosion control Soil structure

maintenance

Atmospheric composition
and climate regulation
Pollutant attenuation and
degradation
Pest and disease control

SOM dynamics

Decomposition

4. Biological population
regulation

Nutrient cycling

Biological population
regulation
Habitat provision
Biological population
regulation

Biodiversity conservation

Fig. 22.2. Ecosystem services and the related soil-based processes. (From Pulleman et al ., 2012.)

reducing carbon losses through excessive
respiration rates that are associated to con-
ventional ploughing operations. Zero tillage
is a widely used technology that produces
only minimal disturbance of the soil and
therefore induces less microbial respiration
than the traditional mouldboard plough.
This technique also confers permanent resi-
due cover to the soil, preventing bare soil
from being exposed to eroding winds or rain-
fall (specific examples of regional agricul-
tural practices that improve the soil's car-
bon budget and enhance ecosystem services
are given in Chapters 23-28 of this volume.)
Crop rotations that include perennial crops,
such as grass leys, also contribute to reduce
C emissions, especially during the ley phase.
High-yielding crops provide the basis for
high residue returns to the soil. Residue
management that removes large proportions
of postharvest crop remnants, as for in-
stance for biofuel production or straw bales,
has a negative impact on the SOC content of
soils (Lal, 2009). The biological activity of
the soil is crucial for building and maintaining

good soil structure (Six, 2004; Ayuke et al .,
2011). Apart from aboveground plant mater-
ials, root biomass and exudates constitute
an important food source for microorgan-
isms, earthworms and other higher organ-
isms as well (Kong and Six, 2010; Kong
et al ., 2011).

Soil Carbon Management for Specific
and Multiple Ecosystem Services

Soil structure maintenance
and improvement

Soil structure is the result of the interaction
between soil mineral, inorganic and organic
constituents that form stable aggregates
(Niewczas, 2003; Elmholt et al ., 2008). In
most soils, organic matter is the most import-
ant binding agent contributing to aggregate
stability (Chivenge et al ., 2011), although in
many tropical soils metal and alkali ions
are very important in maintaining structure