Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
ments in demand. [. . .] The productivity growth in one sector spreads to others via income and
expenditure l ows through markets.
The opposite case of stagnant sectors and regions is also important to investigate the
time needed for adjustment to new conditions and for restructuring. This does not only
need new kinds of entrepreneurs and technologies, but also new attitudes.
EEG uses micro and meso levels of analysis, much less the macro dimension. Lewis
(2004; p. xvi) argues that, to explain growth, one needs to turn to the micro and the meso
levels. Firms and consumers are often seen as the basic units of analysis at the
micro
level.
At the
meso
level, i rms, industries and sectors, but also regions and cities can be taken as
a central focus for investigation (Lambooy, 1989). At the
macro
level, regions and coun-
tries can be investigated, but mainly as a result of interactive dynamic relations at the
micro and meso levels. Macroeconomic development is often measured with indicators
like GDP and employment. Macro structures, once developed, inl uence or condition
human behaviour. In micro-analysis the emphasis is on actors and behaviour. Actors are
involved in emergent processes, in unpredictable ways, with uncertain macroeconomic
and spatial outcomes. They adjust continuously to changes in their environment. The
relation between microeconomic actions and macroeconomic outcomes is dii cult, more
in particular over longer time-horizons. Although the explanation of novelties has to be
connected to micro behaviour, in our investigation mainly the outcomes are considered.
The concept of 'the economic system as a complex adaptive system' and theories of
'long waves' and 'development with phases' are interesting attempts to understand the
nature of these longer time-horizons. Scott (2006) argues that the investigation of tech-
nology and production systems is decisive to understand the development of regional
and urban economies.
Space is an integral part of human societies and evolves together with human activi-
ties. It can be conceived as an integration of human activities, their networks and their
various environments as an adaptive complex system of 'human ecology' (Lambooy,
1984, 1989). Actors adjust to changing activities and conditions in an emergent process.
Urbanisation processes and interregional dif erences in economic growth rel ect the
forces of technology and broader human processes, like institutional forces.
In the next section we further explore the interrelations between technology and
spatial development.
3. Technology and space
Technology can be dei ned in various ways. The most usual view in economics is to
consider technology as a bundle of human capabilities, skills and routines that is used in
production, primarily the production of goods but also the production of services (like
surgery, or truck-driving). Technology is used to transform goods, to enable a certain
kind and quality of services, and to enable the use of goods in consumption. In this sense
of the use of material goods, knowledge and skills, technology is important in consump-
tion too, like in the use of computers and TVs. Technology can also be conceived as
knowledge embodied in the 'hardware' (or 'tools') of capital and consumption goods.
It primarily consists of knowledge as an attribute of actors, combined with material
aspects in tools, equipment, buildings and infrastructure. The ef ects of technology on
productivity and incomes are undeniable, more in particular when GPTs are widely used
