Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
are debated, there is broad acceptance of the general principles. These state that whilst the
function of farms is to produce food and other goods (e.g. fibres, energy), they also provide
other (non-market) functions such as protection of natural resources (soil, water,
biodiversity), maintenance of forests, biotopes and other valued elements of landscapes; as
well as contribute to the cultural heritage of rural areas (including traditional and speciality
foods). The understanding of farming as multifunctional, therefore, shifts the perspective
from a sectoral to a territorial approach, where the manifold interdependencies of rural
areas and farming are emphasized.
This multifunctionality was highlighted in a number of the case studies presented in
this topic, where it became clear that the niches studied resulted from interactions between
the agri-food regime and other regimes, such as recreation, energy or environmental
protection. As Holtz
et al.
(2008) have pointed out, niches may emerge through novel
interactions between regimes. Given its multifunctionality, it would seem that in farming,
potential transitions are likely to involve niches that emerge from such novel interactions.
These interactions are mostly present at the level of the farm, from which very diverse
value chains may emerge, linked to aspects such as recreation, energy production (through
windmills, wood or biogas) or food production (as commodity for the food industry, or as
traditional food sold directly to consumers).
The fact that farms contribute to several crucial functions in society, that farmers are
stewards of over half of Europe's territory and that they produce many public goods, all
contribute to a high level of policy involvement. Indeed, agriculture was one of the first
sectors where policy was made at EU-level, not least driven by the importance of securing
food supply after the Second World War. While initially, the aim of the Common
Agricultural Policy (CAP) was food security, it later focused on the competitiveness of
farms, and - since the Agenda 2000 - has also aimed to ensure environmental
sustainability. Since its beginning, the CAP was also a 'farm policy', aimed at contributing
towards a fair standard of living for farmers (European Union, 2012). Indeed, the European
vision for rural areas is that they are integrated into the economy through their resources
and local initiatives, incorporating economic, social and cultural dimensions. The aim is to
ensure that rural areas are a place with dynamic communities, and to keep 'lights on in the
windows', even in remote rural areas. The second pillar of the CAP has promoted the
diversification of farms, thereby encouraging farmers to go 'beyond' agriculture and
addressing emerging societal expectations, whilst opening up new sources of income.
These rural development policies have opened up windows of opportunity which have
allowed 'dormant niches' to become more visible, and new niches to develop. Thus, the
agricultural side can be 'deepened' through engaging in value-added activities, such as
short food chains or organic farming; the rural side of the farm might be 'broadened' by
creating new income flows to the farm enterprise, for example through new on-farm
activities such as agri-tourism, or care farming; the farm can be 're-grounded' in a new
pattern of resource use, for example through pluri-activity (van der Ploeg and Roep, 2003).
As such, many of the case studies included in this topic are an illustration of niches co-
dynamically developing at the interface between 'bottom-up' and 'top-down' processes.
Indeed, while niches are often seen as struggling to take-off in the face of a reluctant (and
often 'locked-in') agricultural regime, within farming it seems that the policy sub-regime is
actively engaged in promoting change - even if 'change' should not be equated with
'transition', and even if these forces are not necessarily dominant.
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