Conceptual insights derived from case studies on ‘emerging transitions’ in farming - Transition Pathways towards Sustainability in Agriculture: Case Studies from Europe - page 190

Farming is fundamentally a land-based activity, and is, therefore, heavily shaped by the
local agri-ecosystem, topography and climate, as well as by traditions, economic structures
and social norms that have co-evolved in this natural environment. As natural conditions
and cultural traditions vary, both within a region and between regions, farming structures,
practices and values are very diverse (see Slee and Pinto-Correia, this volume). Indeed, on
the farm various activities can be integrated in different ways to suit local conditions and
farmer preferences. As a result, within a given region farms vary in size, activity and
market-orientation. Some farmers will focus on reducing production costs to increase their
competitiveness on international commodity markets, whilst others diversify their crops or
engage in processing to provide a broad and attractive range of products for sale at farmers'
markets. Yet others may opt for 're-grounding' by diversifying the economic activities
based on the farm. Between regions, diversity is also pronounced; ranging from small,
0.5 ha semi-subsistence farms in Bulgaria, to 250 ha mixed crop-livestock farms in
southern Portugal, to 10,000 ha estates in the UK. Diversity in farming is not limited to
production methods, farm structures, or the influence of terrain and climate; it is also
influenced by the types of markets that farmers serve, be they long or short food chains,
energy markets, or the services that they offer (e.g. tourism and recreation). Given this
diversity, a transition is not likely to lead to a uniform set of practices but rather to a
different mix with different emphases, and differences in the linkages between elements of
the farm system. This might make it challenging to pinpoint a clear transition from a set of
practices 'A', to a new - and radically different - set of practices 'B'.
Marsden (2013) has also pointed out the inherently spatial nature of farming systems.
As such, the biophysical conditions are as decisive as is the location of a region (especially
whether it is peripheral or close to a large urban area). Both can play an important role in
the types of transitions that are more likely to 'take-off'. For example, the case studies on
'countryside consumption' (Pinto-Correia et al. a, this volume) show that a transition from
agricultural land being used primarily for food production towards agricultural land being
used primarily as a living space and for recreation, is more likely to occur in regions with
an attractive physical landscape close to an urban centre, not least as the latter will offer
jobs and, thus, income opportunities. Similarly, urban centres play an important role in the
cases linked to alternative agri-food networks (Darrot et al. , this volume): the proximity to
large cities and the demand by urban consumers has enabled farmers to co-construct direct
marketing initiatives with them. In some cases, the spatial nature of agriculture might seem
less relevant; for example in the production of renewable energy, as the electricity
generated can be fed into the grid and, thus, transported over large distances (Sutherland et
al. b, this volume). However, even in that case the low quality of grid connections in remote
areas tend to privilege more centrally located farms, whilst peri-urban developments are
more likely to be subject to public protest.
Another feature is linked to the function of farming. Indeed, farming is often perceived
as having primarily one societal function: food production, and, therefore, as being one
clearly defined sector. Within the MLP, this sector can be understood as a socio-technical
regime, with its constituting sub-regimes (see Geels, 2011), for example: agricultural
policy, agricultural research, the agri-food industry, food production and processing
technology, market and consumer preferences. However, this sectoral (or food-chain)
understanding of agriculture has been the object of discourse in Europe since the 1990s,
when ideas surrounding the multifunctionality of farming came to the fore (Marsden and
Sonnino, 2008; Renting et al. , 2008). Although the specific aspects of multifunctionality