The Rhetoric of Conflict Inside and Outside the Stadium: The Case Study of an Italian Football Cheer Group - Conflict and Multimodal Communication: Social Research and Machine Intelligence - page 202

construction of inter- and intragroup interactions and the nature of cheering fans'
subjective and collective identities can be culturally and discursively conveyed.
In this domain, social conflict can find some cultural and discursive basis in the
process of dehumanization, which is an extreme form of depersonalization where
individuals and their groups can lie outside the boundaries of both humanity and
morality (Tileaga 2007 , 2012 ). In its several forms, dehumanization denies the
emotive and moral qualities of persons. As a consequence, it can make injustice
normal and acceptable, activate forms of moral disengagement, and, at the extreme,
represent a clue for possible violent behaviors, such as expulsion and atrocity.
The construction of intergroup and dehumanizing processes can be acted by some
kinds of metaphor, which is an essential and performative discursive tool for the
social construction of reality (Volpato 2011 , 2012 ):

- “Animalization” entails presenting others as irrational, immature, rough, uned-

ucated, behaving in a primitive way. This kind of metaphor is related to some
forms of western culture; in particular, it was used in the colonial period to
emphasize the myth of the white man by delegitimizing opponents (Jahoda
1999 ). Further studies are needed to deepen both the negative features and the
positive values (power and status) of animal metaphors.

- “Demonization” involves the depiction of human beings as “monsters” because

of some excess, blemish, or deformity. This kind of metaphor started in the
medieval period (e.g., the giant became a savage figure), whereas in the Christian
era the essence of wickedness was represented by the devil (Le Bras-Chopard
2000 ).

- “Biologization” makes use of metaphors about disease and purity and transforms

others into viruses, pestilences, cancers, tumors, and pollution. The genocides of
the last century found their origins in this metaphor and in the resulting practices
of cleansing, suppression, and purification (Savage 2007 ).

- “Mechanization” involves presenting others as mechanical organisms who are

unable to feel emotions, detached, passive, without curiosity, compassion, or
imagination. Taking into account both the medical and the technological domain,
this metaphor found its greatest application in the Tayloristic idea of work.

- “Objectification” is where individuals are considered as objects, tools, or goods,

in the worst cases as slaves. Indeed, several dimensions characterize this
metaphor, but the most dangerous is instrumentality: the person becomes “use-
ful” because of some traits. As a consequence, in contrast to the other types, this
involves approaching (rather than leaving) the person.

Classic psychosocial studies (Allport 1954 ;Kelman 1973 ; Opotow 1990 ) identi-
fied dehumanizing dynamics as a possible basis for social disqualification, atrocities,
and extreme violence, expedited by the negation of the humanity and the moral
properties of the group.
All of these phenomena can be constructed via discourse: Bruner ( 1990 ) asserted
that what people say is just as important as what they do. In this vein, it could be
argued that understanding of intergroup conflict in sports could be fruitfully framed
from a cultural and discursive perspective.