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shortage of candidate indigenous species that could be used for rewilding their historic
range. In the USA, herbivores like bison ( Bison bison ), pronghorn antelope ( Antilcapra amer-
icana ), and elk ( Cervus elaphus ) all suffered at the hands of rampant hunting. Bison were shot
in their millions in the nineteenth century but are now being returned to the prairies of Mon-
tana, and it is hoped these efforts will provide habitat for further other endangered species
like black-footed ferrets ( Mustela nigripes ), pronghorns, elks, mountain plovers, burrowing
owls, and large predators, such as mountain lions (Dinerstein and Irvin 2005).
Carnivores, including wolves ( Canis lupus ), grizzly bears ( Urus arctos ), bobcats ( Lynx
rufus ), and swift foxes ( Vulpes velox ) suffered particularly badly in historic times and carni-
vores are a major focus in re-wilding because of their regulating effects on ecosystems, and
because they require large territories that will therefore provide habitat for many other spe-
cies and connectivity that benefits ecological functions (Soule and Noss 1998, Rubenstein
et al. 2006, Terborgh et al. 2006, Estes et al. 2011). Wolves have been reintroduced success-
fully to the Yellowstone National Park, and their populations are rebounding naturally in
Europe, facilitated by land abandonment that reduces human-wildlife conflict and enhances
connectivity.
The reintroduction of African mammals on other continents might restore some ecosys-
tem functions, but the objections voiced against the reintroduction of indigenous carnivores
would surely be multiplied many times for exotic animals. Reintroduced or recovering carni-
vore populations can potentially cause conflict with livestock owners, and surveys from the
USA, western Europe, and Scandinavia report a more negative attitude to wolf reintroduction
in those occupied in ranching and farming (Williams et al. 2002). There may be lessons to be
gained from experiences in Africa, where husbandry methods protect livestock in bomas
(corrals) at night, and tolerance to carnivores has been enhanced by a 'cheetah-friendly' beef
certification programme (Chapron 2005).
Furthermore, the implication that African animals must be removed from Africa for their
protection is a sensitive issue, especially given that Africa is the only continent to have a rela-
tively intact megafauna and has an extensive network of protected areas. However, poaching
has escalated in the wake of legalized ivory sales (Bennett 2014, Wittemyer et  al. 2014), and
rhino are being poached near to extinction in the wild. Therefore, some seeingly outlandish
re-wilding plans may yet come to provide temporary refuges for those species that are under
siege in their native range.
Wild wood or wood-pasture? Re-wilding in europe
While there is growing enthusiasm for re-wilding in Europe, the debate has polarized opin-
ions on how European woodlands should look. The closed canopy 'wildwood' has a powerful
hold in many hearts and minds, symbolizing the last wilderness in Europe's otherwise
domesticated landscape. However, populations of herbivores in Europe are much dimin-
ished, and it may be that the dense forest cover that dwells in the collective imagination is an
artefact of Europe's depauperate fauna. Oliver Rackham, Frans Vera, and others have argued
 
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