Where The Wild Things Were: Re-wilding and the Sixth Extinction - Biodiversity Conservation and Environmental Change - page 39

The Pleistocene park in Siberia is established on ecological precedent, but there is no such
basis for the Oostvaardersplassen Reserve, in the Netherlands, which was founded on land
reclaimed from the sea in 1968. Since the 1980s, ecologist Frans Vera has led a bold attempt to
realize the vision of a Pleistocene landscape in Europe, based around the function of large
ungulate populations (Seddon et al. 2014). Since land reclamation, an astonishing transform-
ation has taken place, beginning with the development of marshland habitats, which were
protected by a quay. Water levels were allowed to fluctuate, enabling a mosaic of wetlands,
drier areas, and emergent vegetation to establish. Gradually, a heterogeneous marshland and
grassland mosaic established, and was soon colonized by Greylag geese and groves of willow
trees that provide shade and winter food reserves for introduced herbivores.
The re-wilding of Oostvaardersplassen involves replacing extinct species with descendants
or functional equivalents (Sutherland 2002). For example, wild Konik ponies from Poland
were introduced in lieu of tarpan ( Equus ferus ferus Bod.), which died out in 1909, and Heck
cattle are the replacements for their ancestors, the aurochs ( Bos primigenius primigenius
Boj.), extinct since 1627. Heck cattle are descended from domestic cattle, which were 'back-
bred' by selecting the opposites traits preferred during domestication; bad temper, large
horns and low milk yields. Further back-breeding experiments, using Highland cattle, Span-
ish Limiana, and Italian Maremmana, which still carry some aurochs genes, are ongoing. Red
deer were introduced in 1992.
One controversial aspect of the reserve is that no predators have been introduced. Aside
from the foxes, corvids, and raptors (birds of prey) that arrived naturally, the reserve contains
no carnivores. An initial policy of non-intervention led to the starvation of some herbivores in
the winter months, leading to serious welfare concerns about keeping what are essentially
domestic animals without veterinary care or any additional food supply. The current policy
mimics weak predation by shooting old or sick animals, leaving the carcasses for the raptors
and foxes.
Oostvaardersplassen was assigned 'Natuurmonument' status in 1986, Ramsar Wetland sta-
tus in 1989, and received a European diploma for protected areas in 2004. The Oostvaarder-
splassen website describes the reserve as pure nature, because it has never been inhabited by
people, but every aspect of its existence, from the reclamation of the polder to the control of
herbivore populations depends on human action and without predators this landscape can-
not function as its Pleistocene equivalent. Supporters argue that is has value as an educa-
tional, scientific and aesthetic resource. While the ecosystem only exists because of human
manipulation, it also provides aesthetic, recreational, and educational opportunities, with
large herds of herbivores roaming freely over a plains-like grassland, in scenes reminiscent of
the African savanna, a surprising and fascinating vista in an otherwise industrialized land-
scape. Whether the reserve can ever function without human management remains to be
seen, but this is true of many areas which are cherished nonetheless.
Even more ambitious plans for Pleistocene re-wilding are afoot in the USA. Arguing that
humans bear an ethical responsibility to prevent future megafaunal extinctions and redress
past losses, Josh Donlan and colleagues suggest that elephants, lions, cheetah, and camels
from Africa and Asia could take the place of extinct Pleistocene mammoths, mastodons,