Conclusions: Conservation in the Anthropocene - Biodiversity Conservation and Environmental Change - page 177

willingness to accept change that underpins innovation and adaptation while respecting the
limits to ecological resilience (Pauly 1995, Redman and Kinzig 2003, Papworth et al. 2009,
Chapin III et al. 2010).
Sustainability and multifunctional landscapes
In the ecosystem management approach, people are perceived as part of nature (Grumbine,
1994, 1997). Cultural, economic as well as biological diversity are needed to build resilience
and adaptive capacity and to foster effective stewardship of landscapes (Chapin III et al.
2010). Therefore there is a need for conservation to extend beyond the protected areas net-
work to include complex, heterogeneous, multifunctional landscapes, which include a range
of protected area models that that are embedded in a highly connected matrix of seminatural
habitats that maintain ecological function and provide a range of ecosystem services (Wu
2006, 2011, 2012, 2013, O'Farrell and Anderson 2010).
In order to increase resilience and foster adaptation, a multifaceted approach is needed
that includes the maintenance and restoration of ecosystem services and the development of
diverse livelihoods, in multifunctional landscapes that include elements of sustainable food
production, tourism, carbon markets, and other payments for ecosystem services (Mills and
Cowling 2006, Lovell and Johnston 2008, Reyers et al. 2009, Fischer et al. 2012, von Wehrden
et al. 2014). Critically, the sustainability of landscapes depends on people's engagement, and
payments for ecosystem services are unlikely to work in the long-term if decoupled from
local identity and sense of place. Flexible management systems that build on locally adapted
systems are more likely to withstand changing climate and socioeconomic conditions (Berkes
et al. 2000), therefore conservation of cultural landscapes has a natural synergy with sustain-
ability science, providing a focus for integrating biodiversity conservation with sustainable
ecosystem service provision and a re-engagement with the land (Chapter 7) (Wu 2006, 2011,
2012, 2013).
Agropastoralist societies all over the world have developed adaptive systems of resource
management that enable them maintain heterogeneity and sustainable supplies of ecosys-
tem services in highly unpredictable environments (Niamir 1990, Berkes et al. 2000, Hammi
et al. 2010). Traditional resource access rules and mobility strategies still persist in some
regions, providing management models that can be adapted to local context, helping to pre-
vent over-exploitation and maintain a healthy natural resource base (Chapters 6 and 7). Such
locally evolved systems are more likely to be accepted and upheld, contributing to account-
ability and fairness in conservation governance (Lockwood 2010, Virah-Sawmy et al. 2014).
Multifunctional landscapes include highly protected core areas, that embody 'wilderness'
values, and provide supporting ecosystem services, low-intensity agrarian landscapes that
are resilient, sustainable and of high cultural value, as well as high-intensity production areas
and urban/industrial centres that provide employment hubs and a range of other societal
needs (O'Farrell and Anderson 2010). Heterogeneous agrarian landscapes are complex socio-
ecological systems that can provide a range of habitat types include meadows, wood-pastures,