The Conservation Paradox - Biodiversity Conservation and Environmental Change - page 2

Densely Settled

100

Croplands

Semi-natural

80

Rangelands

60

40

Wildlands

20

0

6000 BCE 3000 1000 0 1000 1500 1750 1900 1950 2000

Figure 1.1 Transformation of the biosphere. The effects of human intervention are now apparent on
more than half of the Earth's ice-free land mass, though the exact starting date of the Anthropocene is
still debated. Adapted from Ellis (2011).

questions, such as the conservation of elephants, the management of fire, adapting to climate
change, ecosystem services, and the sustainability of landscapes.

Two early conservation approaches: preservation and utilization

Early pioneers of conservation were driven by their awe of nature to preserve inspiring land-
scapes in apparently pristine states. The 'Wilderness Movement' focused on conserving
large tracts of land with as little human impact as possible. The motives were largely aes-
thetic and philosophical; use of nature was not necessarily the driving force for these conser-
vation pioneers, but rather the recognition of beauty in landscapes, geological features, and
wildlife, as well as the human yearning to be amongst unspoiled nature (Jepson and Whit-
taker 2002). Led by John Muir, George Perkins Marsh, and others, it is no coincidence that
this philosophy flourished in the late nineteenth century, in the wake of the industrial revo-
lution that had had transformed landscapes on an unprecedented scale. At the same time,
Victorian travellers and naturalists witnessed a wealth of species hitherto unknown to sci-
ence, Darwin's theory of evolution had caught the publication imagination, and the passion
for natural history was born (Kalamandeen and Gillson 2007). Yellowstone National Park
was the first 'wilderness' protected area in the world, but the model spread rapidly across the
globe, even though many 'wilderness' areas were created by removing indigenous inhabit-
ants. In Africa, game reserves were established with the aim of replenishing stocks of wildlife
slaughtered by Europeans in the 'scramble for Africa. Safeguarding animal populations in
protected areas facilitated the control of access to wildlife and also served to separate wild-
life and domestic stock, at least to some extent, thereby slowing the rate of spread of zoonotic
diseases. Since human influence was antithetical to the wilderness ethic, the management
ideal was to isolate conservation areas, keeping disturbance to a minimum, on the grounds
that if left alone, nature's balance would prevail. These ideas were underpinned by the belief