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provisioning ecosystem services such as food production and water purification (de Groot
et al. 2005, Wu 2011, 2012, 2013).
Towards multifunctional landscapes
There is an emerging synergy between landscape ecology, resilience theory and sustainabil-
ity science that provides a framework of the integrated conservation of multifunctional land-
scapes (Wu 2006, 2011, 2012, 2013, Reyers et al. 2009, O'Farrell et al. 2010).
The study of adaptive cycles over long timescales shows that resilience to environmental
change and shocks is enhanced by environmental heterogeneity, social cohesion, diverse and
flexible agricultural practices, sustainable water management, and effective local governance
of natural resources that maintains a flow of ecosystems services without degrading natural
capital (Redman and Kinzig 2003, Costanza et al. 2007, Van der Leeuw et al. 2011). Integrating
both ecological and social concerns across landscapes provides a spatial focus for ecosystem
management and sustainability goals, providing cultural context and ecological connectivity
(Chapin III et al. 2010, Wu 2011, 2012, 2013). While only 12% of land is in protected areas, over
30% is used for food production, and therefore landscapes that provide wildlife habitat as well
as sources of food are potentially important components of conservation in the Anthropo-
cene (Tscharntke et  al. 2012). Multifunctional landscapes can potentially safeguard a broad
range of ecosystem services, thereby reducing vulnerability, fostering resilience and adaptive
capacity (Chapin III et al. 2010). Furthermore, people appreciate heterogeneous and complex
landscapes because of their aesthetic appeal, cultural, heritage and spiritual significance, and
biodiversity habitat (Tscharntke et  al. 2012, Milcu et  al. 2014) and this provides potential for
re-engaging people with the landscapes upon which they depend, fostering a sense of place
and laying the foundations for successful ecosystem stewardship (Foster 2003, de Groot et al.
2005, Chapin III et al. 2010, Wu 2012, 2013). Two case studies illustrate how management and
conservation of multifunctional landscapes is evolving in the UK and USA.
Uplands in the UK
The uplands of United Kingdom are dynamic cultural landscapes that have responded to
human management for millennia. Distributed mainly in Scotland, northern England, Wales,
and northern Ireland (Figure 7.4a), uplands provide essential ecosystem services like water
provisioning, agriculture, forestry, as well as sport, recreation, and tourism. The UK uplands
are of international conservation importance; 75% of the world's heather moorlands are in
upland Britain and the traditional rotational burning practices that maintain a productive
heather mosaic now unique to Britain and Ireland. The uplands are highly valued for their
recreational and aesthetic qualities, as well as their cultural and historical significance. They
are also home to rare birds like dunlin, peregrine, golden plover, and red grouse. Large tracts
of the uplands are protected in various ways; for example, National Parks, Special Areas of
Conservation, and Special Protection Areas cover about 2 million hectares, and a further 2
million hectares are designated as Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty or Scottish National
 
 
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