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developed to cope with the water-scarce environment, and livelihoods centred around inte-
rior trade routes.
During the Classic period, the Maya were a complex and prosperous civilization of as
many as 5 million people, organized into a network of city states (Scarborough et al. 2012,
Turner and Sabloff 2012). Royal dynasties were founded and centres of power proliferated
in the interior during a wetter period between 440-660 ce, when agricultural productivity
was high. Slash and burn (swidden) agriculture was replaced by more intensive agriculture
as pressure for land increased. Terracing was important for soil stabilization and cultiva-
tion, while forests were managed to favour useful species, and orchard gardens were estab-
lished near houses. Highly seasonal precipitation and karst geology meant little availability
of surface water in the elevated interior region and effective water management was crit-
ical (Figure 7.2c) (Dunning et al. 2012). Dams and tiered reservoir systems fed domestic use
and surrounding fields, sustaining a longer growing season, and providing building mater-
ial for the massive pyramids, which were the hallmarks of this era (Figure 7.2b) (Scarbor-
ough et al. 2012).
During the Late Classic period, complex social-environmental interactions, including
increasing climatic aridity combined with deforestation and erosion, led to stresses on eco-
system services, in turn fomenting societal instability and political fragmentation in the inter-
ior (Dunning et al. 2012). Archaeology and palaeoclimate data from stalagmites show extreme
aridity and population collapse in 750-1050 ce, with eight droughts between 806 and 935 ce,
alongside palaeoecological evidence for declining tree cover and increased erosion (Kennett
et  al. 2012). The impacts of drought were exacerbated by the clearance of upland forests,
which further reduced local rainfall and soil fertility, and increased erosion. Reduced tree
canopy cover also led to less interception of volcanic ash, contributing to declining soil fertil-
ity and increasing crop vulnerability to pests and diseases (Haug et  al. 2003, Kennett et  al.
2012, Turner and Sabloff 2012). Erosion and increased sedimentation reduced water storage
capacity in karst depressions and stream channels, further restricting water supply in the dry
season. At the same time, the growth of urban settlements had reduced water penetration
and groundwater recharge (Dunning et al. 2012, Turner and Sabloff 2012).
As drought and scarcity persisted, the credibility of the ruling classes eroded as they were
unable to provide the material and spiritual security required by the labour forces, who main-
tained increasingly elaborate urban architecture, agriculture, forestry and engineering infra-
structures. Competition rather than co-operation became the norm and there were violent
conflicts between warring lineages, which further eroded the resilience of the socio-economic
system (Dunning et  al. 2012, Scarborough et  al. 2012, Turner and Sabloff 2012). During this
time the political landscape fragmented and wars became frequent. There was a major politi-
cal collapse in the ninth century and many workers abandoned their cities in search of better
prospects in coastal settlements. Cities that did not have hydraulic technology, or that had
decommissioned their reservoirs and canals during the wetter climate of the fifth to seventh
centuries were abandoned first (Scarborough et al. 2012). At the same time, maritime trans-
port reduced the need for trade routes across the Yucatán peninsula, further exacerbating
conflict and scarcity in the interior (Turner and Sabloff 2012). The elevated interior region was
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