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the landscape is likely to become more homogeneous in the future without restoration of
traditional management, and an alternative management plan for the Park could aim to pro-
tect threatened cultural elements, which would support provide a range of ecosystem ser-
vices, support local livelihoods, and maintain biocultural diversity (see Chapter 7 for further
discussion of cultural landscapes) (Agnoletti 2007).
RLA is especially prevalent in Europe, but likely to become increasingly widespread as the
trend towards urbanization and intensive agriculture increases (Weissteiner et al. 2011). RLA is
driven by complex interactions between society and nature; environmental change creates
challenges and opportunities, which play out on a backdrop of changing market forces, techno-
logical innovation, and social flux (Weissteiner et al. 2011, Milcu et al. 2014). Traditional land-
use systems are being eroded or abandoned in many areas because of the move towards
intensive, high input agricultural systems, centralized policies that discourage mobility, and
access to outside markets. At the same time, however, culturally appropriate approaches that
build on and enhance local engagement with landscapes are increasingly recognized as a vital
part of the conservation toolbox (Antrop 2005, Hammi et al. 2010, Weissteiner et al. 2011).
Land abandonment can result from over-stretching the resources of traditionally managed
areas, and/or because of external drivers such as urbanization and opportunities of employ-
ment elsewhere (Shakesby 2011, Weissteiner et al. 2011). Socioecological systems can become
over-stressed as populations grow and markets open up, and vulnerability is further increased
by unpredictable rainfall and increased chance of extreme climatic events. These factors cre-
ate pressure on scarce resources, particularly in marginal areas, and at the same time can
erode social cohesion if a lack of alternatives leads to disputes and a breakdown of traditional
resource-access rules. All of these factors can lead to the regeneration capacity and resilience
of agropastoral systems and forests being exceeded, leading to over-exploitation and poten-
tially tipping marginal ecosystems into a more degraded state, which is difficult to reverse, or
conversion to other land uses (Niamir 1990, Hammi et al. 2010).
Agricultural intensification requires less labour and smaller areas of land than traditional
management systems, and globalization means many food products can be imported more
cheaply than they can be produced locally. This model has favoured the transition to large
farms in the hands of fewer owners, and the demise of traditional management in many
areas, as small-scale farming has become unprofitable (Antrop 2005, von Wehrden et al.
2014). At the same time, urban and coastal areas provide more job opportunities that appeal
to younger generations, whose aspirations often lie outside of the agricultural sector. RLA
leads to ghost towns and villages with ageing populations, few job opportunities, and dimin-
ished labour force, as well as declining agricultural productivity. Economic, political, and
technological changes in the agricultural and industrial sectors impact on settlement pat-
terns; populations are both pushed and pulled towards urban and coastal areas, leading to
depopulation of rural areas (Antrop 2005, Weissteiner et al. 2011).
Landscape homogenization and biodiversity loss following RLA can be construed as a deg-
radation of cultural landscapes, and there is increasing interest in the restoration of trad-
itional, less intensive agrarian landscapes, which offer diverse habitats for wildlife, have
aesthetic appeal and cultural value, as well as providing a range of ecosystem services and
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