Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
model (Giles-Corti et al.
2005
). Further, correspondence between the boundaries
within which environmental data are collected and the environments to which
the perceptions refer is of great importance (Smith et al.
2010
). For example, a
researcher's definition of a neighborhood offering area-level data may be substan-
tially different from that of a questionnaire respondent's. The lack of specificity also
weakens the correlation between respondent perceptions and objective environment
measures.
5.3
Theoretical Basis for Examining the Influence
The built environment's influence on walking behavior varies with walking types.
Travel demand provides a theoretical foundation for the influence mechanism on
walking for transport. Travel demand depends on the balance between the “utility”
of the activity and the “travel cost” of reaching the destination. Because walking
for leisure has health, exercise and relaxation utilities, it is included in the utility
framework. It also fits in the broader daily activity context, as it offers the choice to
decide where, when and how long (in the built environment) this leisure activity will
be conducted. Activity patterns are thus expected to give a more complete picture
of an individual's walking behavior. Discrete choice models and the TPB are useful
in forecasting and understanding the travel choice that forms the skeleton of activity
patterns.
5.3.1
Travel Demand Derived from Activity Patterns
The original contributions of activity pattern studies can be traced to the works of
Hägerstrand (
1970
)andChapin(
1974
). Hägerstrand (
1970
) focuses on three kinds
of constraints restricting human movement in a spatial-temporal framework, includ-
ing (1) capability constraints, (2) coupling constraints and (3) authority constraints.
Capability constraints refer to limitations imposed by physiological necessities such
as sleeping, eating and personal care. Coupling constraints define where, when and
how long an individual can interact with other individuals. Authority constraints
limit access to either space locations or time locations (e.g. a bank's business hours)
(Hägerstrand
1970
). The effects of the built environment can be expressed in these
three constraint forms. Chapin (
1974
) describes a motivational framework in which
activity patterns result from the interaction between individual propensities and
perceived opportunities to engage in activity. He argues that individuals perform
activities to meet their basic needs, which in turn determines their propensity to
engage in activities (Chapin
1974
). By taking opportunities into account, Chapin
could assess the effect of the built environment on activity patterns (Ettema and
Timmermans
1997
). Hägerstrand (
1970
)andChapin(
1974
) provide a theoretical
basis for the study of human daily activity patterns, from which travel demand
(including trip generation and modal choice) can be derived.
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