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stream impact of reduced snow and ice coverage. While in-depth studies
of glaciers, snow and permafrost have been carried out in some areas they
are scattered widely in space and time. Few detailed investigations of the
response of snow and ice to climate warming have taken place in the Hi-
malayan and other high ranges. Baseline studies are lacking for most ar-
eas, particularly for areas higher than 4,000 amsl and there has been little
long-term monitoring of climatic variables, perennial snow and ice, runoff
and hydrology in the extraordinary heterogeneity of mountain topography
(Messerli et al., 2004; Rees and Collins, 2006). In addition, the one com-
mon feature that all mountain areas share with one another complexity
caused by topography causes temperature and precipitation to vary over
very short distances (Becker and Bugmann, 1997), which in turn makes
projections difficult.
Three levels of impact to climate change can be identified: (1) local
effects; (2) downstream effects; and (3) global feedback effects. The de-
velopment of adaptive strategies can be approached from the perspective
of each of these three different levels. Firstly, adaptive strategies can be
developed at the local level, looking at local effects within the Himalayas
and giving priority to local adaptation. Secondly, adaptive strategies can
be developed from the perspective of the downstream level, evaluating
the downstream effects of climate change and designing adaptive strate-
gies around these effects. Thirdly, adaptive strategies can be on the global
level, based on the potential feedback mechanism of the environmental
changes in the Himalayas to global warming. All three levels are inter-
linked and interrelated, but full of uncertainty.
19.10.7 LOCAL EFFECTS
Few model simulations have attempted to address issues related to fu-
ture climatic change in mountain regions, primarily because the current
spatial resolution of models is too crude to adequately represent the topo-
graphic and land use details (Beniston, 2003). Most climate models and
predictions for high-altitude areas (above 4,000 masl) are dependent on
extra potation from hydro-meteorological stations at comparatively low
altitudes and upon assumptions based on other, better-studied, parts of the
world (Rees and Collins, 2004). The importance of the most widespread
cryogenic processes - avalanches, debris flows, rock glaciers, alpine per-
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