Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
to be enough to induce milk letdown and by using this low dose it can be injected
repetitiously with a reduced risk for side effects. Parenteral administration of synthetic
oxytocin is a very efficient way to induce uterine contractions and trigger milk ejection.
The intramuscular route of administration is most common but using the intravenous
route may further improve the effects. Although efficient and considered safe, repeated
use of oxytocin might have some detrimental effects on sows. Indeed, repeated use of
oxytocin may be related to poor herd performance (Bilkei Papp, 1994; Ravel
et al.,
1996)
and increased somatic cell counts in milk (Garst
et al.,
1999). A downside to the use
of oxytocin is that it induces placental vasoconstriction, exposing fetuses to hypoxia
(Rootwelt, 2012). Oxytocin should therefore not be used as a routine but rather in cases
where its use is recommended. The indications generally accepted in veterinary medicine
include primary inertia of the uterus and PDS.
10.6.2
Pain management at farrowing
Parturition is a painful process even in the pig, and feeling pain may decrease the interest
of the sow towards her piglets. In extreme cases, pain may induce aggressive behaviour.
Before farrowing, the sow is showing increased activity. After farrowing, sows lie down,
which can be considered as passive behaviour (Malmkvist
et al.
, 2012; Oliviero
et al.
,
2008b; Wallenbeck
et al.
, 2008). Postpartal sows can be affected by roughness of the
flooring material, which may cause skin lesions (Norring
et al.,
2007). In addition, it was
shown that the use of non-steroidal agents at farrowing may, to some extent, protect sows
from developing skin lesions during early lactation, because of reduced time laying down
(Viitasaari
et al.,
2013). Since endotoxins appear as a major component of clinical sings
related to PDS, pharmaceuticals targeted to alleviate endotoxemia may be recommended.
Indeed, treatment with non-steroidal agents was shown to have a beneficial effect on
health of affected sows. Treatment strategies usually consist of one treatment on the day
of parturition, and sometimes a second treatment the following day. Drugs that have been
proposed are: flunixin (2 mg/kg) (Cerne
et al.,
1984), tolfenamic acid (2-4 mg/kg) (Rose
et al.,
1996), and meloxicam (0.4 mg/kg) (Hirsch
et al.,
2003). Therefore, appropriate
management of pain at farrowing seems appropriate. It is our understanding that under
medication is more common than over medication. Whenever a sow refuses to expose
her udder towards the piglets in early lactation, pain should be considered as a potential
cause of this refusal.
10.7
Effect of environment in early lactation
Maternal behaviour in free-ranging sows is normally performed in an isolated nest that
the sow has built during the pre-parturient period (Jarvis
et al.
, 2004). Some hours before
farrowing sows show a natural behaviour of nest-building like foraging, rooting and
pawing, expressing the desire to build a shelter for protecting their offspring. However,
the possibility to perform these natural activities in farrowing crates is limited due to the
lack of space, material or both. Provision of a biologically relevant stimuli, such as straw,
positively affects the nursing and suckling behaviour of sows and piglets, with reduced
termination of sucklings, reduced frequency of foreleg rowing, increased duration of
