Notes - Life Out of Sequence - page 232

5. Haigh, “Veritable Bucket.” On SAGE, see also Edwards, Closed World ,
chapter 3.
6. See Bachman's 1973 Turing Award acceptance speech (Bachmann, “Pro-
grammer as Navigator”).
7. Codd, “A Relational Model,” 377.
8. Codd called the process of distributing data in this way “normalization.”
9. Haigh, “Veritable Bucket,” 43.
10. Hunt, “Margaret Oakley Dayhoff.” See also Dayhoff and Kimball,
“Punched Card Calculation.”
11. Ledley was invited by George Gamow to join the RNA Tie Club in
1954. See chapter 1 of this topic for more on Ledley's use of computers in
biology, and for a detailed account of Ledley's career, see November, “Digitiz-
ing Life,” chapter 1.
12. November, “Digitizing Life,” 73-74.
13. November argues that this was one of two visions for computerizing
biomedicine in the 1950s and 1960s. The other, advocated by Howard Aiken,
was a mathematization of the life sciences on the model of physics. November,
“Digitizing Life,” 169-170.
14. Ledley, Use of Computers , 12.
15. Dayhoff and Ledley, “Comprotein,” 262.
16. Dayhoff, “Computer Aids.”
17. See Pauling and Zuckerkandl, “Divergence and Convergence,” and
Zuckerkandl and Pauling, “Molecules as Documents.”
18. Margaret O. Dayhoff to Carl Berkley, February 27, 1967. Quoted in
Strasser, “Collecting and Experimenting,” 111.
19. Dayhoff and Eck, Atlas .
20. Dayhoff and Eck, Atlas , viii.
21. Dayhoff and Eck, Atlas , 36.
22. To fi nd superfamily relationships, Dayhoff compared sequences both
with each other and with randomly generated sequences; related sequences
showed a much higher match score than could be generated by chance. Super-
families organized proteins into groups according to evolutionary relation-
ships; through this method, many proteins within the same organisms (even
those with very different functions) could be shown to have similarities to one
another. Dayhoff et al., “Evolution of Sequences.”
23. Dayhoff, “Origin and Evolution.”
24. Dayhoff, “Computer Analysis.”
25. Strasser, “Collecting and Experimenting,” 112.
26. Strasser, “Collecting and Experimenting,” 113-114.
27. John T. Edsall to Dayhoff, November 4, 1969. Quoted in Strasser,
“Collecting and Experimenting,” 116.
28. Dayhoff to Joshua Lederberg, draft, March 1964. Quoted in Strasser,
“Collecting and Experimenting,” 117.
29. For more details, see Strasser, “Experimenter's Museum.”
30. Smith, “History of the Genetic Sequence Databases.”
31. Smith, “History of the Genetic Sequence Databases,” 703. Strasser also
gives an account of the history of GenBank, in which he rehearses his theme