Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
(Merrifi eld and Swyngedouw 1997; Soja 2000). The social organization
of urban space often is refl ected in local politics because wealthier com-
munities tend to have greater access to political power, and subsequently
achieve better services and infrastructure for their neighborhoods (Soja
2009; Fainstein 2006).
One of the ways that spatial injustices manifest themselves in urban
areas is in local environmental inequities. Traditionally, deprived urban
neighborhoods and communities of color have been victims of greater
contamination than well-off and white communities (Bullard 1990;
Pellow 2000). For instance, incinerators, landfi lls, or refi neries have
historically been located in poor and powerless communities rather than
in affl uent suburbs (Bullard 1990; Pellow 2000). Such communities also
are prone to receiving fewer environmental services, from street cleaning
to maintenance of open space to solid waste management (Harvey 1973;
Hastings 2007).
Global Dimensions of Climate Injustices
Spatial injustices are refl ected in inequalities that exist within and between
locales (Merrifi eld and Swyngedouw 1997). Just as geographic inequities
are present in the environmental, urban, and labor arenas, they also are
prevalent in the climate domain. Climate injustice traditionally refers to
the inequities that exist between countries and regions in their climate
responsibility, vulnerability, and mitigation. It also refers to the weaker
ability of poor nations to negotiate effectively in global climate confer-
ences (Roberts and Parks 2007a).
In terms of responsibility for climate change, Europe and the United
States have contributed over 50 percent of total greenhouse gas emis-
sions, while developing nations in Africa, Latin America, and Asia have
only contributed 15 percent (Borchert 2007). Although China's emission
levels have recently outstripped emissions from the United States, emis-
sions of fast-growing countries such as China and India are still relatively
low if measured per capita. However, emissions are increasing sharply
in developing countries as rich nations “offshore” the energy- and natural
resource-intensive stages of production (Roberts and Parks 2007b).
Industrialized nations are thus in a situation of “carbon debt” or “eco-
logical debt” relative to the remainder of the globe (Martinez Alier 2002;
Roberts and Parks 2007b). They have greatly exceeded their share of
equitable, global per capita carbon emissions, and have already used up
most of the “space” available for greenhouse gas emissions in the atmo-
sphere (Simms 2005).
