Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
and multiparty forums. In particular, the authors emphasize the need for
protocols that ensure transparency and procedures that will hold corpo-
rations and governments accountable for their actions. They also note
that transparency and accountability require the development of mecha-
nisms that ensure access to decision processes and communication among
diverse actors so that information and ideas are exchanged and multi-
party learning can take place.
A further argument advanced by many of the authors is that transna-
tional nongovernmental and social movement organizations can promote
equity and equality by infl uencing national and subnational decisions
and institutions. Previous research has shown how the mobilization of
civil society actors can raise awareness of inequalities and contribute to
the development of new laws and policies, both through domestic initia-
tives (e.g., Bullard 1990; Tesh 2000) and the creation of ties to transna-
tional actors (e.g., Keck and Sikkink 1998; Pellow 2007). In most
chapters, we see that local actors around the world struggle to have their
voices heard and have their claims recognized. By comparing resource
extraction in different countries, Widener is able to demonstrate in
chapter 8 that environmental inequalities not only continue unabated
when there is limited government oversight and accountability, but when
domestic nongovernmental organizations fail to coordinate their efforts
and serve as watchdogs. In chapters 10 and 11 respectively, Hicks and
Pellow extend these points by showing how the effi cacy of local organi-
zations can be contingent on the participatory norms within a given
country. Drawing on ideas that are central to social movement scholar-
ship (i.e., Keck and Sikkink 1998), they fi nd that national context affects
whether actors can be infl uential or whether they will be better able to
achieve their goals when they enlist the support of transnational actors.
Their cases further reveal that transnational actors do not simply comple-
ment the strengths or extend the capacities of local and national oppo-
sitional groups, but have the potential to redefi ne national and subnational
political terrains in ways that alter political and social dynamics contrib-
uting to inequities, promote accountabilities, and foster new visions for
social and environmental justice.
Conclusion
Overall, the chapters in this topic suggest that individuals, communities,
and countries will be more or less successful in preventing and coping
with climate impacts, toxic exposures, and other inequalities according
