Geoscience Reference
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their popularity electronic maps have not completely eliminated the use of
paper maps. Conventional paper maps can offer a quick overview due to
their large format while the map content on mobile devices is adjusted to
the limited display size.
Sellen and Harper (2001) investigated the question whether the paperless
office is a myth. To examine the value of paper for the user they made use
of the concept of “affordances” that goes back to the ecological psycholo-
gist J. J. Gibson (Gibson 1979). Despite the fact, that paper maps are
already being replaced by digital solutions in some domains, for example
in naval navigation (DeVogel et al. 2001), one might still ask whether
paperless navigation is a myth. In this particular case some incidents show
that, despite the obvious benefits of the digital system, paper might still be
needed as a fall back solution (Backwell 2010). Reilly et al. (2006) inter-
viewed students with respect to their preference for maps in paper form or
on electronic devices. Test persons with a preference for electronic maps
mentioned the ability to cover a larger total area, to have control over the
zoom level of the map and the existence of a search function as reasons for
their choice. However, electronic devices like smartphones have not been
particularly designed for map applications. Hence, the maps had to adjust
to the conditions of the device that has been designed to be preferably
compact. The compact dimensions of the display stand in contrast to the
large formats of maps in their traditional form on paper. Ishikawa et al.
(2008) examined people's wayfinding behavior and spatial knowledge ac-
quisition while using GPS-based mobile navigation systems, paper maps
or direct experience of routes. Users of paper maps performed significantly
better in wayfinding tasks and in sketching a map of the previously un-
known test area. They discuss that the small screen map may be a factor
that negatively effects the user's orientation in space compared to users
with a larger map view on paper. Gartner and Hiller (2009) come to a simi-
lar conclusion. Dillemuth (2009) tested the use of maps in an empirical
study. Contestants were given access to a map of a fictional area via a dis-
play while the map view had different sizes and only showed a part of the
whole map. The rest of the map was accessible through panning. After
studying the map contestants had to answer questions concerning their spa-
tial knowledge about the fictional area. Those with a limited map view per-
formed especially worse in answering questions about relative distance and
relative direction compared to those who could view the whole map at
once. Those test persons in Reilly et al. (2006) that were in favor of the
paper map described the map view as easier accessible and easier to adjust
for instance through rotating or folding. Besides these technical aspects
emotional factors should be taken into account as well. Levy (2001)
