Information Technology Reference
In-Depth Information
A major breakthrough was the introduction of automatic typesetting with the
linotype machine, which was operated by a keyboard to automatically set and jus-
tify, or fill a line of text by adjusting the space between words. The first linotype
machines were used at the New York Tribune in 1886. Electricity was introduced
in 1884, as were machines that cut, folded, and bound newspapers.
By 1900, the newspaper was established worldwide as an essential link in the
information infrastructure. Now, in the 21st century, the newspaper reflects the
emergent paradigm by appearing in paper and electronic formats, with opportunit-
ies for readers to comment on articles. Newspapers have become a two-way com-
munication channel for the dissemination of information.
Communication Infrastructure
Since information transfer by definition is recorded information, it is helpful to
explore the history of recorded messages. Meadows (2006, 1) provides a standard
definition of communication: “Communication is based on the transmission of sym-
bols and the interpretation of these symbols by the receiver of the communication.”
Symbols may be sounds, including spoken words, pictures, digital symbols (letters,
numbers), odors, tastes, and feeling. In other words, humans communicate using
all of their senses.
Primitive Messages
Recorded messages (drawings) thought to be 50,000 years old have been dis-
covered in caves in France and Spain. These drawings were iconic—pictures of
objects or animals—and it wasn't until about 3300 BCE that the Sumerians re-
corded symbols on the flat surfaces of clay tablets. Pictorial symbols gradually
evolved into abstract symbols that did not look like the subjects they represented.
The English alphabet was created by Semitic peoples who lived in the region of
present-day Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, and Egypt.
New media for recording the symbols evolved: papyrus and animal skins;
parchment was made from sheepskin and vellum from calfskin. Paper was inven-
ted in China in about 100 CE Ink was used as early as 2500 BCE.
During the Middle Ages (500-1500 CE), classical European learning was sup-
ported by the Christian church. The Renaissance in the 14th century and the Re-
formation of the 16th century resulted in more people reading and writing. These
efforts to read were supported by the invention of the printing press in about
1450 by Johannes Gutenberg. The printing press became an important part of
the information infrastructure, as it enabled the fast reproduction of newspapers,
magazines, and such monographs as topics and pamphlets.
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